AP Psych Unit 0

3 Elements of the Scientific Attitude

-Curiosity

-Skepticism

-Humility

Curiosity

The initial question — can this be proved with scientifically-derived evidence?

Skepticism

How do we know? Not cynical but not gullible

Humility

Continuing to pursue knowledge through unexpected outcomes

Hindsight Bias

A phenomena appearing as “common sense” after it has occurred because the outcome is known

Overconfidence Bias

The tendency to pick quick, “obvious” answers, choosing ego over fact

Perceiving Order in Random Events

We find comfort in patterns by escaping the mayhem of reality

Behaviors

Any observable response

Mental Processes

All things done within the mind

The Scientific Method

1. Ask a question

2. Do background research

3. Construct a hypothesis

4. Select a research method

5. Participant selection

6. Procedure working?

7. Analyze Date and Draw Conclusions

8. Report Findings

Peer Reviewed Articles

Step 2 of Scientific Method, researching previous studies to see what psych community already knows

Hypothesis

An informed, testable predictions

2 types:

-Null Hypothesis

-Alternative Hypothesis

Null Hypothesis

There are no effect between variables

Alternative Hypothesis

Proposes an effect between variables

Operational Definitions:

Carefully worded statements of how variables are measured

Quantitative Results

Numbers, statistics (Likert Scale)

Qualitative Results

Observation based (interviews)

Non-Experimental Design vs Experimental Design

Experimental:

-Manipulates an IV

-Randomly assigns participants to different groups

-Cause + Effect

Non-Experimental:

-Doesn’t manipulate variables

-Observed patterns

Experiments

Researches control conditions and manipulate 1+ factors to observe effects

Independent Variable

Factor that is being manipulated

Dependent Variable

Outcome factor

Confounding Variable

In an experiment, factor other than IV that could produce an effect

Population

Group that researches want to learn effects on

Random Sampling

Participants are randomly selected from the population

Random Assignment

Everyone from random sampling has equal chances of being split into different groups

Experimental Group

Receives the IV

Control Group

Does not receive the IV

May receive a placebo pill in drug tests

Social Desirability Bias

People answering surveys to please researcher or improve their image

Self-report Bias

People not accurately remembering their behaviors

Positive Correlation

Two sets of scores rise and fall together

Negative Correlation

Two scores relate inversely

Illusory Correlation

Recalling instant to confirm beliefs in a relationship

Regression Towards the Mean

The return to regular behavior after fluctuation

Single-Blind Procedure

Blinds patient to control social-desirability bias

Double-Blind Procedure

Blinds both patient + researcher to avoid placebo effect and experimenter bias

Case Studies

One individual or group is studied in depth to reveal universal principles

Pros: Helps understand rare conditions that may be unethical to impose onto others

Cons: May not be generalizabl

Naturalistic Observations

Observes and records behaviors in naturally occurring situations

Pros: People act naturally w/ no researcher influence

Cons: Behavior might not happen, no ability to ask follow-up questions

Meta-Analysis

Combines results from lots of research studies on the same topic to find new patterns

Pros: Gather lots of data @ once, big picture results, no new participants

Cons: No new data

Third Variable Problem

In a correlational study, occurs when a correlation is actually due to a 3rd, unmeasured variable

Directionality Problem

In a correlational study, researcher doesn’t know which variable is impacting the other

Likert Scale

Questionnaire responses fall on a continuum (strongly agree/disagree, 1-10)

Confederates

Actors hired by researchers to make an experimental situation seem more realistic

Researches Biases

Hindsight Bias

Confirmation Bias

Overconfidence Bias

Wording Effect

Sampling Bias

Participant Biases

Self-report Bias

^Social Desirability Bias

Placebo Effect

Demand Characteristics

Wording Effect

Researchers using different words with varying connotations when speaking that alters a participant’s answer

Sampling Bias

When a sample does not accurately represent the population being studied

Research Goals

Representation

Validity

High Reliability

Statistical Significance (p)

Generalizability

Representation

Studies should represent target population

Validity

Research measured what it should’ve

High Reliability

Research gets consistent results when replicated

Statistical Significance (p)

Numerical value that indicates if results were due to chance. If p<0.05 (5%), results were not due to chance

Generalizability

The extent to which results obtained are applicable to a broader population

Ethical Considerations

Informed Consent

Protection From Harm

Confidentiality

Anonymity

Deception

Debriefing

Institutional Review

Informed Consent

Contract stating risks and goals of experiment. Participants must sign + agree

(Called informed assent for minors)

Protection From Harm

Participants cannot be placed in mental/physical risk

Confidentiality

Participants’ identities aren’t revealed when the research study is published

Anonymity

Researchers don’t know the identities of the participants

Deception

Deception can be used, but not too extreme

May use research confederates

Debriefing

After study, participants are told the full purpose of the study

Participants leave in the same state as which they arrived

Institutional Review

Committee must review procedures and determine if it’s ethical

Histogram

Bar Graph

Central Tendency

A single score used to represent a set of scores

Mode

Most frequent score

Bimodal Distribution

2+ frequently occurring scores

Mean

Arithmetic Average

Median

Midpoint of Data Distribution

Percentage Rank

% of Scores less than a given score

Measures of Variation

Range

Standard Deviation

Range

Gap between lowest + highest scores

Standard Deviation

How much individual scores differ from the mean

Convenience Sample

Sample of participants chosen because they were easily available, not randomly