APES Unit 4 Earth Systems and Resources

Rock cycle

the series of processes that change one type of rock into another type of rock

Geological

concerned with geology, the science that deals with the physical nature of the earth

Convergent boundary

A plate boundary where two plates move toward each other.

Divergent boundary

A plate boundary where two plates move away from each other.

Transform boundary

A plate boundary where two plates move past each other in opposite directions

Plate tectonic theory

the theory that the lithosphere is broken up into large plates that move and then rejoin; considered the unifying theory of geology

Tectonic plates

a block of lithosphere that consists of the crust and the rigid, outermost part of the mantle

Plate boundaries

the edges of tectonic plates.

Seafloor spreading

The process that creates new sea floor as plates move away from each other at the mid-ocean ridges

Volcanoes

openings in Earth's crust from which molten rock, dust, ash, and hot gases flow or erupt

Convergent Oceanic-Continental

Features: volcanic arcs, volcanoes, trench
Examples: , Andes Mountains

Earthquakes

sudden movements of Earth's crust followed by a series of shocks

Convergent Continent-Continent

A landform created by this boundary is mountain ranges.

Hot spots

places where molten material from the mantle reaches the lithosphere

Faults

Breaks in Earth's crust where rocks have slipped past each other.

Asthenosphere

The soft layer of the mantle on which the tectonic plates move

Lithosphere

A rigid layer made up of the uppermost part of the mantle and the crust.

Crust

The thin and solid outermost layer of the Earth above the mantle

Convection currents

a current in a fluid that results from convection.

Mantle

The layer of hot, solid material between Earth's crust and core.

Soil

The loose, weathered material on Earth's surface in which plants can grow.

Erosion

Processes by which rock, sand, and soil are broken down and carried away (i.e. weathering, glaciation)

Cover crops

Plants, such as rye, alfalfa, or clover, that can be planted immediately after harvest to hold and protect the soil.

Vegetated buffers

areas of natural or established vegetation maintained to protect the water quality of neighboring areas

Parent material

the rock material from which the inorganic components of a soil are derived

Soil horizons

distinct layers of soil

Weathering

The breaking down of rocks and other materials on the Earth's surface.

Organic material

Materials that were once part of living things

Soil Fertility

Soil's ability to hold nutrients and to supply nutrients to a plant

physical properties of soil

texture and porosity

biological properties of soil

Many organisms are found in the soil including fungi, bacteria, protozoans, rodents and earthworms.

Fertilizer

a chemical or natural substance added to soil or land to increase its fertility

Clay

the finest soil, made up of particles that are less than 0.002 mm in diameter.

Sand

the coarsest soil, with particles 0.05,2.0 mm in diameter.

Silt

fine particles of fertile soil

Water holding capacity

how well soil can retain water (sand is low, clay is high)

Loam

Rich, fertile soil that is made up of about equal parts of clay, sand, and silt.

Atmosphere

A mixture of gases that surrounds a planet or moon.

Leaching

removal of dissolved materials from soil by water moving downwards

Troposphere

0-17 km above Earth's surface, site of weather, organisms, contains most atmospheric water vapor. (temperature decreases with increasing altitude, pressure decreases)

Stratosphere

2nd layer of atmosphere; extends from 10 to 30 miles up; location of ozone layer; absorbs 95% of Ultraviolet radiation; temperature increases with altitude increase.

Mesosphere

The layer of Earth's atmosphere immediately above the stratosphere

Thermosphere

The uppermost layer of the atmosphere, in which temperature increases as altitude increases

Exosphere

The outer layer of the thermosphere, extending outward into space.

ozone layer

Protective layer in atmosphere that shields earth from UV radiation.

Global wind patterns

air movements that are caused by pressure belts convection cells and earth's rotation. Warm air rises from the equator to the poles then cools and sinks back to the equator

Trade winds

prevailing winds that blow from east to west from 30 degrees latitude to the equator in both hemispheres

Wind

the movement of air caused by differences in air pressure

Solar radiation

energy from the sun

Equator

0 degrees latitude

Coriolis effect

Causes moving air and water to turn left in the southern hemisphere and turn right in the northern hemisphere due to Earth's rotation

Atmospheric circulation

redistributes heat over earth's surface by exchanging warm tropical air with cold polar air.

insolation

incoming solar radiation

Seasons

Earth has seasons because because its axis is tilted as it moves around the sun.

Latitude

Distance north or south of the equator

Axis

An imaginary line that passes through Earth's center and the North and South poles, about which Earth rotates

Infrared radiation

a form of energy with wavelengths that are longer than visible light

Climate

Overall weather in an area over a long period of time

Microclimates

Local climatic conditions that differ from the general climate of a region

weather

The condition of Earth's atmosphere at a particular time and place.

Rain shadow

a region with dry conditions found on the leeward side of a mountain range as a result of humid winds from the ocean causing precipitation on the windward side

Elevation

height above sea level

Precipitation

Any form of water that falls from clouds and reaches Earth's surface.

leeward

The side of a mountain range that faces away from the oncoming wind.

Wayward

The side of a mountain range that faces towards the oncoming wind.

El Nino (ENSO)

A reversal of wind and water currents in the South Pacific

La Nina

"Normal" year, easterly trade winds and ocean currents pool warm water in the western Pacific, allowing upwelling of nutrient rich water off the West coast of South America.

Upwelling

The movement of deep, cold, and nutrient-rich water to the surface

convergent oceanic-oceanic

2 oceanic plates push together, older plate sub ducts and forms a chain of volcanic islands, ex. Aleutian Islands and Japanese Islands

divergent oceanic-oceanic

two ocean plates move apart. The landforms formed by this boundary are mid-ocean rigdes.
Examples: Mid-Atlantic Ridge, the Iceland volcano

divergent continental-continental

two continental plates move apart, forms rift valley

Core

The innermost zone of Earth’s interior, composed mostly of iron and nickel. It includes a liquid outer layer and a solid inner layer

Mantle

The layer of Earth above the core, containing magma, the asthenosphere, and the solid upper mantle

Crust

Crust the outermost shell of a terrestrial planet.

Magma

Molten rock

Asthenosphere

The layer of Earth located in the outer part of the mantle, composed of semi-molten rock

Lithosphere

The outermost layer of Earth, including the solid upper mantle and crust

Plate Tectonics

The theory that the lithosphere of Earth is divided into plates, most of which are in constant motion

Earthquake

A sudden movement of Earth’s crust caused by a release of potential energy from the movement of tectonic plates

Richter scale

a numerical scale for expressing the magnitude of an earthquake on the basis of seismograph oscillations. The more destructive earthquakes typically have magnitudes between 5.5 and 8.9; the scale is logarithmic and a difference of one represents an approximate thirty-fold difference in magnitude

Hot Spot

In geology, a place where molten material from Earth’s mantle reaches the lithosphere

Volcano

A vent in the surface of Earth that emits ash, gases, or molten lava

Tsunami

A series of waves in the ocean caused by seismic activity or an undersea volcano that causes a massive displacement of water

Divergent boundary

An area below the ocean where tectonic plates move away from each other

Seafloor spreading

Caused by a divergent boundary, in which rising magma forms new oceanic crust on the seafloor at the boundaries between those plates

Convergent boundary

An area where one plate moves toward another plate and collides

Subduction

The process in which the edge of an oceanic plate moves downward beneath the continental plate and is pushed toward the center of Earth

Island Arc

A chain of islands formed by volcanoes as a result of two tectonic plates coming together and experiencing subduction

Collision Zone

An area where two continental plates are pushed together and the colliding forces push up the crust to form a mountain range

Transform boundary

An area where tectonic plates move sideways past each other

Fault

A fracture in rock caused by a movement of Earth’s crust

Igneous rocks

Rock formed directly from magma

Sedimentary rocks

rock that forms when sediments such as muds Sans or gravels are compressed by overlying sediments

Metamorphic rocks

rock that forms when sedimentary rock igneous rock or other metamorphic rock is subjected to high temperature and pressure

Rock cycle

 the geologic cycle governing the constant formation alteration and destruction of rock material that results from tectonics weathering and erosion among other processes

Physical weathering

 the mechanical breakdown of rocks and minerals

Chemical weathering

the breakdown of rocks and minerals by chemical reactions that dissolving of chemical elements from rocks or both these processes

Acid precipitation/Acid rain

 precipitation high in sulfuric acid and nitric acid also known as acid rain

Erosion

the physical removal of rock fragments from landscape or ecosystem

Parent material

 the underlying rock material from which the inorganic components of soil are derived