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Where was Phineas Gage’s damage located in his brain?
Left lower forebrain and connections between left and right frontal cortices
What happened to Phineas Gage?
Personality completely changed and decline in cognitive functioning
Patients with Bilateral Prefrontal Cortex Damage have what 5 characteristics?
Highly distractible
Lack of foresight
Unusually stubborn
Lack of motivation
Loss of sense of what is socially acceptable
What is meant by highly distractible in patients with bilateral prefrontal cortex damage?
Turning from one activity to another according to novelty of new stimulus rather than a plan
What is meant by lack of foresight in patients with bilateral prefrontal cortex damage?
Not able to anticipate or predict future events
What is meant by unusually stubborn in patients with bilateral prefrontal cortex damage?
In the face of advice that they do not agree with, they may remain firm on an action
What are the three aspects of executive functioning?
Working memory
Inhibitory control
Cognitive flexibility
Short-term maintenance and manipulation of information
Working memory
Self Control: Controlling your attention, behavior, emotions to override a strong internal or external cue
Inhibitory Control
Adjusting to new demands, rules, or priorities
Cognitive Flexibility
Which part of executive functioning is N-back task associated with?
Working memory
N-Back Task
Indicate whether each stimulus matches the one N-back (e.g. 2 trials before in the 2-back task)
What happens as N gets larger?
More errors
N-Back Task
Indicate whether each stimulus matches the one N-back (e.g. 2 trials before in the 2-back task)
More errors occur as N gets larger
Usually when __-back there is no success
5
N-Back Task
Indicate whether each stimulus matches the one N-back (e.g. 2 trials before in the 2-back task)
More errors occur as N gets larger
Usually when 5-back there is no success
Shown slides of numbers and subjects think back to 2 back from the slide they are on to determine if the numbers match and if they do they report it is a match
What two processes is this task working in working memory?
Stimulus maintenance and removal
Which aspect of executive functioning is the stroop test testing?
Inhibitory control
Stroop Test
Name the font color when it is incongruent with the word
resolving conflict from more dominant word reading response
What were the results?
Slower to name font color when incongruent with the color word
What is the Wisconsin test testing in executive functioning?
Cognitive Flexibility
Wisconsin Test
Sort cards based on “set”: color, number, or shape
Discover the rule based on the feedback from the researcher
What happens after a bunch of correct sorts?
The rule changes
Wisconsin Test
Sort cards based on “set”: color, number, or shape
Discover the rule based on the feedback from the researcher
The rule changes after a bunch of correct sorts
How is inhibitory control being tested?
Need to inhibit shape to sort by color or vise versa
Wisconsin Test
Sort cards based on “set”: color, number, or shape
Discover the rule based on the feedback from the researcher
The rule changes after a bunch of correct sorts
How is interference being tested?
proactive interference of the first rule you learn causes you to struggle to complete the second rule
Wisconsin Test
Sort cards based on “set”: color, number, or shape
Discover the rule based on the feedback from the researcher
The rule changes after a bunch of correct sorts
How is working memory being tested?
Focused on a specific rule
Wisconsin Test
Sort cards based on “set”: color, number, or shape
Discover the rule based on the feedback from the researcher
The rule changes after a bunch of correct sorts
Not good at switching between rules would conclude…
Loss of flexibility or managing interference
______________ prefrontal cortex in rats: smaller, less interconnection, and less complicated
less developed
Monkeys prefrontal cortex is fairly _________ to humans, but not as divided up.
similar
________ engage in the highest cognitive functions in comparison to rats who engage in much simpler thinking.
Humans
What two things are sub-regions in the brain differentiated by?
Cell composition
Connectivity with other brain regions
Evidence from __________ suggests that sub-regions of the prefrontal cortex might have different functions.
lesion/damage
What is the Dorsolateral prefrontal Cortex responsible for?
N-back tasks and working memory
What is the Lateral prefrontal cortex responsible for?
Stroop Test or inhibitory control
What is the Ventrolateral Prefrontal Cortex responsible for?
Wisconsin Test or Cognitive Flexibility
Evidence from ____________ studies suggest activation of multiple prefrontal cortex regions across multiple types of executive function tasks
Neuroimaging
What does the evidence of activation of multiple prefrontal cortex regions across multiple types of executive function tasks support?
Multiple aspects of the prefrontal cortex being used for the Wisconsin Test
Why is it difficult to determine if different regions of the prefrontal cortex have different functions? 3 reasons
Tasks may involve more than one executive function
Anatomical borders are not clearly defined
Rat prefrontal cortex is not as complex as humans so there are limits to what we can learn
Patients with _____________ damage struggle with real-life decision-making and appear to be unable to learn from their mistakes.
orbitofrontal cortex
Patients with orbitofrontal cortex damage can be fine and perform normally on standard lab tests of ________ ___________, _________ ________, and _________ ___________
working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility
______________ was the main area of damage in Phineas Gage
Orbitofrontal Cortex
The __________________ is a lab measure of decision-making
Iowa Gambling Task
What does the Iowa Gambling Task show?
Orbitofrontal damage is associated with an inability to act on future consequences of actions
Iowa Gambling Task
Participants presented with 4 decks of cards:
Deck A: each card worth $100 but 50% of the time pay a $250 penalty
Deck B: each card with $100 but 10% of the time pay a $1,250 penalty
Deck C: each card worth $50 but 50% of the time pay a $50 penalty
Deck D: each card is work $50 but 10% of the time pay a $250 penalty
What happened at first?
Deck A and B seem better because they are worth more money
Iowa Gambling Task
Participants presented with 4 decks of cards:
Deck A: each card worth $100 but 50% of the time pay a $250 penalty
Deck B: each card with $100 but 10% of the time pay a $1,250 penalty
Deck C: each card worth $50 but 50% of the time pay a $50 penalty
Deck D: each card is work $50 but 10% of the time pay a $250 penalty
At first Deck A and B seem better because they are worth more money
Why is it actually smarter to choose Deck C and D?
They lead to overall gain
Participants presented with 4 decks of cards:
Deck A: each card worth $100 but 50% of the time pay a $250 penalty
Deck B: each card with $100 but 10% of the time pay a $1,250 penalty
Deck C: each card worth $50 but 50% of the time pay a $50 penalty
Deck D: each card is work $50 but 10% of the time pay a $250 penalty
At first Deck A and B seem better because they are worth more money
But, Decks C and D lead to overall gain, so they should actually be the choice
How did participants with orbitofrontal damage perform?
Difficulty learning that Deck C and D lead to more money in the future
Note 
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