Midterm Review – Multidisciplinary Lecture Notes

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms from cosmology, geology, biology, psychology, communication, statistics, linguistics, research methods, Arabic basics, and mathematics as presented in the lecture notes.

Creationism (Biblical Cosmology)

Belief that God created the heavens and the earth out of nothing.

Samsara

The endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth in Buddhism.

Karma

The principle that actions in one life determine circumstances in the next.

Brahman

In Hinduism, the supreme, unchanging reality or highest being.

Steady State Theory

1948 cosmological model (Hoyle & Gold) claiming the universe expands but has no origin and constant density.

Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMB)

Faint after-glow of the Big Bang that disproved the Steady State Theory.

Big Bang Theory

Idea that the universe began from a hot, dense singularity that has been expanding and cooling ever since.

Inflation Theory

Alan Guth’s extension of the Big Bang describing a brief, super-fast expansion that smoothed the universe.

String Theory

Modern idea that all matter consists of tiny vibrating strings existing in 11 dimensions.

M-Theory

Stephen Hawking’s proposal that unifies string theories through higher-dimensional branes.

Vortex Theory

Descartes’ idea that whirlpools in space formed planets and asteroids.

Collision Theory (Encounter Hypothesis)

Jeans and Jeffreys’ concept that a near collision between the Sun and another star produced planetary debris.

Nebular Theory

Kant-Laplace model where a rotating solar nebula collapsed under gravity to form the Sun and planets.

Solar Nebular Model

Modern version of the Nebular Theory emphasizing accretion disk and solar winds in planet formation.

Planetary Differentiation

Early Earth process where denser materials sank to form the core while lighter ones formed mantle and crust.

Radioactive Decay

Spontaneous emission of energy from unstable nuclei that heats Earth’s interior and enables radiometric dating.

Relative Dating

Placing rocks and events in sequence without exact numeric ages.

Original Horizontality

Sedimentary layers are initially deposited horizontally.

Superposition

In undisturbed strata, younger layers overlie older ones.

Cross-Cutting Relationship

Any geologic feature that cuts another is younger than what it cuts.

Inclusion Principle

Rock fragments enclosed in another rock are older than the host rock.

Unconformity

Gap in the rock record caused by erosion or non-deposition.

Angular Unconformity

Tilted or folded rocks overlain by flat layers.

Disconformity

Parallel strata above and below an erosional surface.

Nonconformity

Sedimentary rocks resting on eroded igneous or metamorphic rocks.

Absolute Dating

Determining numeric ages using radioactive decay.

Half-Life

Time required for half of a radioactive isotope to decay.

Isotope

Atoms of the same element with different neutron numbers.

Radiometric Dating

Method of calculating absolute age from parent-to-daughter isotope ratios.

Carbon-14 Dating

Radiometric technique for determining ages of once-living materials <~50,000 years.

Index Fossil

Fossil of a short-lived, widespread species used for correlating rock layers.

True Form Fossil

Preserved actual remains of an organism.

Mold Fossil

Hollow impression left in rock after organic material decays.

Cast Fossil

Mineral-filled replica of a mold fossil.

Trace Fossil

Evidence of organismal activity, e.g., footprints or burrows.

Principle of Fossil Succession

Fossil organisms succeed one another in a definite, recognizable order.

Geologic Time Scale

Chronological framework dividing Earth history into eons, eras, periods, and epochs.

Eon

Largest geologic time unit; e.g., Phanerozoic.

Era

Subdivision of an eon; e.g., Mesozoic.

Period

Subdivision of an era; e.g., Jurassic.

Epoch

Subdivision of a period; e.g., Holocene.

Hadean Eon

Earliest chaotic eon when Earth’s crust formed.

Archean Eon

Eon of continent formation and first life.

Proterozoic Eon

Longest eon preceding abundant complex life.

Phanerozoic Eon

Current eon of visible life (last ~540 Ma).

Paleozoic Era

Era of marine invertebrate diversification, first land plants and amphibians.

Mesozoic Era

Middle life era dominated by dinosaurs.

Cenozoic Era

Recent life era featuring mammals and humans.

Core

Earth’s iron-nickel center; solid inner, liquid outer; source of magnetism.

Mantle

Thickest layer of semi-molten rock between core and crust.

Crust

Earth’s outermost solid layer; oceanic and continental types.

Mohorovičić Discontinuity (Moho)

Boundary between crust and upper mantle.

Gutenberg Discontinuity

Boundary separating mantle from outer core.

Lithosphere

Rigid rock layer comprising crust and uppermost mantle.

Asthenosphere

Weak, plastic layer of upper mantle beneath lithosphere.

Goldilocks Zone

Stellar distance where liquid water can exist on a planet’s surface.

Planetary Habitability Index

Criteria assessing a planet’s potential to support life (e.g., core, rotation, tilt).

Geosphere

Solid Earth, including rocks and plate boundaries.

Atmosphere

Gaseous layer surrounding Earth that regulates temperature and blocks radiation.

Troposphere

Lowest atmospheric layer where weather occurs.

Stratosphere

Layer containing the ozone shield.

Mesosphere

Cold layer where meteors burn up.

Thermosphere

Layer where UV radiation creates high temperatures.

Ionosphere

Ion-rich region within thermosphere; site of auroras.

Exosphere

Outermost atmospheric layer merging into space.

Hydrosphere

All water on, under, and above Earth’s surface.

Biosphere

Zone of life integrating all ecosystems.

Biome

Large ecologic region defined by climate and dominant life forms.

Forest Biome

Tree-dominated ecosystem in tropical to temperate zones.

Grassland Biome

Areas dominated by grasses and shrubs.

Desert Biome

Hot, arid region with very low rainfall.

Tundra Biome

Coldest biome with low biodiversity and permafrost.

Aquatic Biome

Water-based ecosystems: freshwater and marine.

Psychosexual Theory

Freud’s view that personality develops through stages centered on erogenous zones.

Oral Stage

First year; pleasure through mouth; fixation may cause smoking habits.

Anal Stage

Years 2–4; pleasure in bowel control; fixation can lead to messiness or perfectionism.

Phallic Stage

Years 4–6; focus on genitals; Oedipus/Electra conflicts.

Latency Stage

Years 7–12; sexual impulses dormant; peer relationships form.

Genital Stage

Adolescence onward; mature sexuality and identity formation.

Psychosocial Theory

Erikson’s framework of eight life-span stages driven by social crises.

Trust vs. Mistrust

Infant stage; reliability of caregivers builds trust.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Toddler stage; developing self-control without ridicule.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Early childhood; asserting power through play and tasks.

Industry vs. Inferiority

School age; mastering skills to gain approval.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Adolescence; exploring personal values and goals.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Young adulthood; forming close relationships.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Middle adulthood; contributing to family and society.

Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Late adulthood; reflecting on life satisfaction.

Cognitive Development Theory

Piaget’s stages explaining how children think and learn.

Sensorimotor Stage

Birth–2; learning via senses and actions; object permanence develops.

Preoperational Stage

Ages 2–7; symbolic play and intuitive reasoning.

Concrete Operational Stage

Ages 7–11; logical thought about concrete events.

Formal Operational Stage

12+; abstract, hypothetical, and deductive reasoning.

Kohlberg's Moral Development

Stages explaining moral reasoning from obedience to universal ethics.

Pre-Conventional Level

Morality based on avoiding punishment and gaining rewards.

Conventional Level

Morality defined by social approval and law obedience.

Post-Conventional Level

Morality guided by social contracts and ethical principles.

Identity Diffusion

Marcia status: low exploration, low commitment; no clear goals.

Foreclosure

Low exploration, high commitment; goals chosen by others.

Moratorium

High exploration, low commitment; active searching.