Theme 2: Ageing and Health REFERENCES

Abrams et al., 2011

social survey categorised old age as beginning at age 59

Skills for Care, 2024

the 65+ population is expected to increase by 38% between 2020-2040

Rowe and Kahn, 1998

successful ageing model - one of the most well known and widely published biomedical examples.

to successfully age we must have - absence of disease/disability, maintenance of mental and physical functioning, active engagement with life

World Health Organisation, 2020

healthy ageing = developing and maintaining functional ability that enables wellbeing in older age

Reichstad et al., 2010

used focus groups and one-to-one interviews which focused on individual experiences of what they deemed at 'successful ageing'

themes = self-knowledge, continuing growth

Reich et al., 2020

In Eastern cultures, older adults take pride in being cared for, and successful ageing is defined by social engagement and connection to family

Wurtele, 2009

student descriptions of people aged 65+ depicted themes of passivity, decline, lack of productivity/learning

Abrams et al., 2009

ageism is the most commonly experienced form of prejudice in Britain

Jackson et al., 2019

around 25% of adults in the UK report experiencing ageism

Levy and Langer, 1992

Asian cultures traditionally revere and greatly respect elderly people

Lou et al., 2013

found that Chinese students held more negative views than American counterparts regarding older adults

Cuddy and Fiske, 2002

conceptions of older adults range from incompetent fool to compassionate and wise - both extreme aren't good, 'positive ageism' can infantilise older adults

Cuddy et al., 2005

ageism has received limited attention in research/policy making compared to racism and sexism

Levy, 2009

children as young as 4 are aware of their cultures' age stereotypes

Shoker, 2020

some centenarians showed great resilience and strong recovery during COVID, challenges idea that ageing inevitably leads to weakness and decline

Levy, 2009 (theory)

stereotype embodiment theory - we internalise societies image. age stereotypes are absorbed across the lifespan, shaping self concept. This can become a self-fulfilling prophecy, shaping how we actually age

Pikhartova et al., 2016

supporting evidence for the stereotype embodiment theory.

8 year long study, participants given stereotypes e.g. old age is lonely - found that actual belief formed from the stereotype, was enough to make participants report loneliness 8 years later, even when controlling for socio-demographic factors

Levy et al., 2012

how ageism interferes with healthy ageing - increased emotional distress, reduced self-efficacy, slower recovery from disability

Coudin, 2010

how ageism interferes with healthy ageing - more dependent/help seeking behaviour

Kuiper et al., 2015

loneliness increases dementia risk by 50%

Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015

loneliness increases early mortality risk by 26%

Gierveld, 1987

loneliness = the subjective negative feeling associated with a person's perception that their relationships with others are qualitatively/quantitatively deficient

Victor et al., 2009

social isolation = more objective measure of loneliness, absence of relationships, ties, or contact to others

ONS, 2010

over half of people aged 75+ live alone

Age UK, 2022

270,000 older adults (65+) in England go a week without speaking to any friend/family

Age UK, 2014

2 out of 5 say TV is their main source of company

Van Ours, 2021

men report experiencing greater isolation at retirement age, however this eventually plateaus

Puyane et al., 2025

women more likely to report high levels of mental distress associated with loneliness/isolation

NHS, 2023; Puyane et al., 2025

loneliness puts people at a greater risk of poorer mental health, including depression, anxiety, cognitive decline

O'Donnell et al., 2004

loneliness and low social interaction are predictive of suicide in older age

Miah et al., 2017

rural populations in developing countries face a digital divide

in Bangladesh, 1 GP for every 1700 patients. 70% population lives rurally, yet 75% of qualified GPs practice in urban areas

Sheiham and Watt, 2012

inequalities in oral health largely driven by differences in sugar consumption and cheaper toothpaste

Barnett et al., 2012

those in deprived areas will have multiple health problems 10-15 years earlier than people from affluent areas

Huisman et al., 2003

the prevalence of long-term disabilities among European men aged 80+ is over 18% higher for those with lower education status

Stewart and Happe, 2025

health records indicate that 89% of autistic people middle aged are undiagnosed, 96% autistic people in old age are undiagnosed

Hand et al., 2010

middle aged/older autistic adults have higher rates of most health conditions e.g. mood disorders, age-related conditions like Parkinson's, cognitive disorders, arthritis

Vivanti et al., 2025

autistic people have higher rates of dementia - prevalence in over 65s was 30% (compared to 10% in general population)

Stewart et al., 2020

autistic people more likely to have multiple mental health conditions

Eshetu et al., 2025

longitudinal analysis suggested people with high autistic traits were 12x more likely to have persistent mental health problems

O'Nions et al., 2024

autistic adults, especially those with learning difficulties, are more likely to have many health problems that aren't being diagnosed

//

from a cohort of nearly 10 million, autistic adults life expectancy was around 6-7 years shorter without intellectual disability, and up to 15 years shorter for those with an intellectual disability

Batsis et al., 2021

adults aged 65 and older made up 80% of the COVID related deaths in the US

Age UK, 2013

in medical care, older adults are addressed with less patience, engagement, respect compared to younger patients

Batson, 2003

'babytalk' or 'elderspeak' = condescending, dismissive, non-listening tone taken with elderly in medical care. Identification of some medical problems seen as a 'natural part of ageing' or ignored

Wada et al., 2015

popular culture often depicts the older body as asexual, undesirable

Relate, 2021

found that 67% of over 65s felt their age group is almost never represented in the media when it comes to sex and intimacy

Heywood et al., 2019

ageist stereotypes don't reflect the diversity of sexual experiences that are often reported by older adults

Hinchcliff and Gott, 2011

health professionals can be reluctant to discuss sexuality and sexual health with older adults

Castaldo et al., 2025

there's great barriers to sexual expression in care homes due to care staff having discomfort, lack of training, and institutional taboo around the subject

Ganong et al., 2012

ignoring sexual needs of elderly has negative implications, as research has found that sexual activity can boost wellbeing and even reduce depression for both older men and women

Harris et al., 2018

age related bias can influence employers' perceptions

Levy, 2000

ageism in the workplaces creates lower self-efficacy, decreased performance, higher psychological stress

Abrams et al., 2016

ageism in workplace causing negative self-stigma

Skills for Care, 2024

1.59 million people employed in the adult social care sector

900,000 frontline carers, 120,000 management roles = imbalance - lack of stable management contributes to wider staff turnover, affects care quality - those with complex needs e.g. dementia especially effected as they rely on consistent, person-centred care.

A lack of this leads to poorer health and wellbeing

Donnellan et al., 2016

dementia carers are one of the most socially isolated groups in the UK

Hamer et al., 2014

sustained physical activity in older age is associated with improved mental health

Stathi et al., 2023

peer-led activity programme. A sedentary/lonely adults (65+) paired with more active peer (55+) for 6 weeks, followed up at 6/8/12 months

- increased activity, confidence, social connection

-many pairs actually formed lasting friendships

Low et al., 2014

'exercise as medicine' exercise can reduce the chance of recurrence, decrease the development of co-morbid conditions, improve overall quality of life

Jasper, 2016

exercise is a clinically relevant treatment, directly improves quality of life in patients with cancer

Macmillan

1.6 million of the 2 million living with cancer in the UK do not achieve the recommended levels of exercise

Fadnes et al., 2023

improving your diet can increase life expectancy by up to 10 years - the earlier change the better but benefits still seen when changes are made in older adulthood

Stanley et al., 2013

pets greatly help with wellbeing among older adults. Pet owners 36% less likely to report loneliness

Wang et al., 2023

caring for grandchildren expands grandparents social networks, in turn, reducing isolation/loneliness

Yang and Yin, 2022

grandparenting associated with improved health and wellbeing outcomes, including improved cognitive health, physical activity, mental health

Paul and Braun, 2024

found general effectiveness of loneliness interventions, with some having greater success e.g. skill building, group activities, animal related, remotely delivered interventions

Jeste et al., 2013

a person's ability to bounce back from the variety of challenges that can arise in life

Minichiello et al., 2000

some older adults were able to activity challenge societal images of elderly through intellectual engagement, social participation, physical activity

- overcoming it in their own lives minimised its impact

Wurtele, 2013

increased knowledge and discussion among students created a positive change in attitudes regarding older adults

Age UK

advocate for intergenerational contact programmes where younger and older people can interact, with the aim of fostering improved attitudes