3.7-3.9

Cognitive Learning

Learning that involves understanding, knowing, or reasoning.

Associative Learning

Learning that involves making connections between two events or stimuli.

Stimulus

Any event or object in the environment that one can respond to.

Behavioral Perspective (Behaviorism)

A psychological approach that emphasizes observable behaviors and their relation to environmental stimuli.

Classical Conditioning

A learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired.

Respondent Behavior

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

Operant Behavior

Behavior that is influenced by its consequences.

Acquisition

The process of developing a conditioned response.

Neutral Stimuli (NS)

Stimuli that initially have no effect on the response.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

An unlearned response that occurs naturally to an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response.

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a conditioned response after a time of absence.

Stimulus Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between different stimuli.

Generalization

The tendency to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus.

Higher-Order Conditioning

A form of conditioning where a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus.

Counterconditioning

A technique used to change the response to a stimulus by associating it with something positive.

One-Trial Conditioning

Learning that occurs after only one pairing of the stimulus and response.

Biological Preparedness

The idea that certain associations are learned more easily than others because of biological factors.

Habituation

A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure.

Operant Conditioning

A method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior.

The Law of Effect

Behaviors that are followed by favorable consequences become more likely.

Operant Chamber

An enclosed apparatus that allows the researcher to observe behavior in a controlled environment.

Discriminative Stimulus

A stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement.

Reinforcement

Any event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a response.

Punishment

Any event that decreases the likelihood of a behavior.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a stimulus to increase a behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an adverse stimulus to increase a behavior.

Positive Punishment

Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Negative Punishment

Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Primary Reinforcers

Stimuli that are naturally reinforcing, such as food or water.

Secondary Reinforcers

Stimuli that acquire their reinforcing power through association with primary reinforcers.

Reinforcement Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between different situations that lead to reinforcement.

Reinforcement Generalization

The tendency for learned behaviors to occur in similar situations.

Shaping

Gradually training a behavior by reinforcing closer and closer approximations.

Instinctive Drift

The tendency of learned behaviors to gradually revert to innate behaviors.

Learned Helplessness

A condition in which a person or animal feels powerless to control their situation.

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

Partial Reinforcement

Reinforcing a response only part of the time.

Fixed-Interval Schedule

A reinforcement schedule that rewards a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

Variable-Interval Schedule

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

Variable-Ratio Schedule

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

Social Learning Theory

The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating others.

Vicarious Conditioning

Learning that occurs by observing the consequences of others' actions.

Model (modeling)

Imitating the behavior of others.

Observational Learning

Learning by observing others without direct experience.

Mirror Neurons

Neurons that fire both when an animal acts and when the animal observes the same action performed by another.

Prosocial Behavior

Positive, helpful behavior that is intended to benefit others.

Antisocial Behavior

Negative behavior that is harmful to others.

Insight Learning

A type of learning or problem-solving that happens suddenly through understanding relationships.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and is not immediately reflected in behavior.

Cognitive Maps

Mental representations of physical locations.