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Cognitive Learning
Learning that involves understanding, knowing, or reasoning.
Associative Learning
Learning that involves making connections between two events or stimuli.
Stimulus
Any event or object in the environment that one can respond to.
Behavioral Perspective (Behaviorism)
A psychological approach that emphasizes observable behaviors and their relation to environmental stimuli.
Classical Conditioning
A learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired.
Respondent Behavior
Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.
Operant Behavior
Behavior that is influenced by its consequences.
Acquisition
The process of developing a conditioned response.
Neutral Stimuli (NS)
Stimuli that initially have no effect on the response.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
A stimulus that naturally triggers a response.
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
An unlearned response that occurs naturally to an unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned Response (CR)
A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
A previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response.
Extinction
The diminishing of a conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus.
Spontaneous Recovery
The reappearance of a conditioned response after a time of absence.
Stimulus Discrimination
The ability to distinguish between different stimuli.
Generalization
The tendency to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus.
Higher-Order Conditioning
A form of conditioning where a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus.
Counterconditioning
A technique used to change the response to a stimulus by associating it with something positive.
One-Trial Conditioning
Learning that occurs after only one pairing of the stimulus and response.
Biological Preparedness
The idea that certain associations are learned more easily than others because of biological factors.
Habituation
A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure.
Operant Conditioning
A method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior.
The Law of Effect
Behaviors that are followed by favorable consequences become more likely.
Operant Chamber
An enclosed apparatus that allows the researcher to observe behavior in a controlled environment.
Discriminative Stimulus
A stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement.
Reinforcement
Any event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a response.
Punishment
Any event that decreases the likelihood of a behavior.
Positive Reinforcement
Adding a stimulus to increase a behavior.
Negative Reinforcement
Removing an adverse stimulus to increase a behavior.
Positive Punishment
Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.
Negative Punishment
Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.
Primary Reinforcers
Stimuli that are naturally reinforcing, such as food or water.
Secondary Reinforcers
Stimuli that acquire their reinforcing power through association with primary reinforcers.
Reinforcement Discrimination
The ability to distinguish between different situations that lead to reinforcement.
Reinforcement Generalization
The tendency for learned behaviors to occur in similar situations.
Shaping
Gradually training a behavior by reinforcing closer and closer approximations.
Instinctive Drift
The tendency of learned behaviors to gradually revert to innate behaviors.
Learned Helplessness
A condition in which a person or animal feels powerless to control their situation.
Continuous Reinforcement
Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
Partial Reinforcement
Reinforcing a response only part of the time.
Fixed-Interval Schedule
A reinforcement schedule that rewards a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
Variable-Interval Schedule
A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.
Variable-Ratio Schedule
A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
Fixed-Ratio Schedule
A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
Social Learning Theory
The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating others.
Vicarious Conditioning
Learning that occurs by observing the consequences of others' actions.
Model (modeling)
Imitating the behavior of others.
Observational Learning
Learning by observing others without direct experience.
Mirror Neurons
Neurons that fire both when an animal acts and when the animal observes the same action performed by another.
Prosocial Behavior
Positive, helpful behavior that is intended to benefit others.
Antisocial Behavior
Negative behavior that is harmful to others.
Insight Learning
A type of learning or problem-solving that happens suddenly through understanding relationships.
Latent Learning
Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and is not immediately reflected in behavior.
Cognitive Maps
Mental representations of physical locations.
