SOC 101 Test 2

Social Stratification

Inequalities between groups in society. Different access to material or symbolic rewards. Class divisions.

Intersectionality

When different sources of inequality crossover.

Structured inequality

Social inequalities that are built into economic and political systems.

Systems of stratification

Slavery

Class

Caste

Slavery

Ownership of others as property. Illegal in every country.

Caste

One’s social status is given for life. Associated with India (Hindu belief in rebirth).

Class

Allow movement between these. Positions are achieved, economically based, and large scale.

Things that determine this: income, ownership of wealth, education, occupation, and lifestyle.

Life Chances

Opportunities for achieving economic prosperity.

Income

Money received from paid wages and salaries or earned from investments.

Real Income

Income excluding increase due to inflation. This is up but not everyone has shared equally in the increase in the productivity in the U.S economy.

Average income of the bottom 99% has increased 14%, while it has increased 95% for the top 1%.

Income inequality has been increasing dramatically since the 1970s.

Inflation

A general increase in the price of things.

Wealth

Measured in terms of net worth (all of the assets one owns minus the debt)

Trends with this inequality parallel those with income inequality.

Some argue this is the real indicator of social class.

While most people make this from work, wealthy people make the bulk of their money from investments, some of which may be inherited.

Primary source of this for most Americans is their home.

Wealthy have this in financial assets.

Many Americans have large debts and owe money on unpaid credit cards, student loans, automobiles, and home mortgages.

There is a significant difference in wealth by race.

Education

One of the strongest predictors of occupation, income, and wealth later in life.

College education pays off.

Hourly earnings of college graduates are nearly double that of people without a degree.

Earnings vary widely by major.

Occupation

Different these vary in terms of perceived prestige

These that require more education and public service often rank higher.

Lifestyle

Cultural tastes and lifestyle choices also reflect perceived social class. Consumer choices, leisure interests, media, etc.

“Cultural and economic capital” or “taste”

Income and wealth limit these choices.

Marx

Capitalism has produced two social classes.

A person’s class position depends on their relationship to means of production (how things are produced).

Bourgeoise- owns the means of production.

Proletariat- sell their labor to the bourgeoise.

Surplus value- workers produce more than the cost of hiring them.

Excess value goes to the owner as profit.

Believed over time that a gap between wealthy minority and poor majority would grow.

Believed life would get worse for the working class and they would push for the overthrow of capitalism.

Communism would replace capitalism with common ownership of the means of production.

Wrong that wages would not increase for the working class. Income has increased the standards of living in western nations has increased dramatically.

However, poverty, homelessness, and stratification remain.

There has not been a movement towards a classless society or widespread “class consciousness” in the western world.

Weber

There are three dimensions of stratification not just social classes.


1. Class a person’s skills and credentials matter in class positions (not just their relationship to the means of production.) People with qualifications and credentials are more marketable.
2. Status- Not the same as social class. Some positions are high in status but low in wealth. Others are low in status but high in wealth.
3. Party (power)- power is distinct from status and class. Different groups have different levels of political power and influence.

Davis and Moore

Argued stratification benefits society. Certain occupations are functionally more important. These positions require special skills and experience for these occupations are limited. There needs to be an incentive/ rewards to attract the best candidates to these positions.-money, power, and prestige.

Critism- difficult to measure functional position of role. Which jobs are most important? How much should they be rewarded? People without special access to top positions may be blocked from reaching their full potential.

Social Class

Has significant impact on lifestyle. Consumption, education, health, and access to political power. The lines between these are not clear cut.

A stratification system with more layers: upper class, middle class (upper middle class and lower middle class), working class, and lower class.

Social Mobility

Movement up or down different class positions.

Absolute Poverty

Not meeting the minimum requirement necessary to sustain a healthy existence (common in poor developing countries).

Relative Poverty

Being poor as compared with the standards of living of the majority. Common in industrial countries.

Poverty Line

Official government measure to define those living in poverty. $26,000 a year for a family of 4.

Working Poor

People who work but whose earnings are not enough to life them above the poverty line. Poverty rates are much higher among minority groups.

Feminization of poverty

Increase in the proportion of poor who are women. Often leads to children in poverty.

Poverty 65+

Social Security and Medicare have been important in lifting many older adults out of poverty. People dependent on these programs live modestly.

Homelessness

Growing problem across the U.S. It is a problem in cities and in rural areas. More young men of working age are homeless today.

Reasons include lack of affordable housing, insufficient income, drugs and alcohol, and mental health (less room in mental hospitals leaves many with no alternatives).

What does our economy need?

Consumer spending and a strong middle class.

Globalization

Increased economic, political, and social (cultural) interconnectedness of the world. An emerging world system and single social order.

Produced great wealth for some. Number of billionaires in the world has increased since 1987. Riches 1% possess almost as much of the world’s wealth as remaining 99%. Others have entered the global labor force but remain in poverty. Work conditions remain poor and unsafe for many.

Global Inequality

Systematic differences in wealth and power among countries. The differences in living standards between wealthy and poor nations is huge.

GNI

An estimate of a country’s (per person) income.

High Income Countries

Industrialized economies.

16% of world’s population, but command 63% of the world’s wealth by total GNI.

Middle Income Countries

Have started to industrialize but are not as wealthy as high-income countries.

2018 75% of the world’s population and they have 36% of the world’s economic output. Primarily east and southeast Asia.

Low Income Countries

Agricultural economies- just beginning to industrialize. Poorest countries average income of $841 in 2018. Highest population growth occurs in the poorest countries.

Global Economic Wellbeing

Globally the number of high income and upper middle-income countries has grown. The number of low-middle income and low-income countries has dropped.

20 years ago, 60% of the world’s population live in low-income countries today its 9%. The economic growth of China and India accounts for much of this upward movement. China’s average income has increased dramatically. The number of high-income countries has stayed the same 15-16%.

There are problems using income measures from world bank. Using average income masks income inequality within each country. Wealthiest people in each country may have high incomes, which gives the impression that the high quality of life is shared evenly.

GNI does not measure economic activity outside cash transactions. Such as barter, value of crops, and animals.

People in the poorest countries live in absolute poverty (often until death). People in wealthy countries live in relative poverty.

Capabilities Approach

Measures quality of life in terms of social indicators. Emphasizes the degree to people are capable of achieving a life they value given the opportunities they face.

Basic capabilities- childhood survival, education, technology.

More advanced capabilities- Health care and higher education.

While incomes have increased, there remains a lack of basic schooling, infant mortality, and starvation. Lack of high-quality education and technology.

Neoliberal Theories

Nations in poverty will benefit if businesses and consumers are free from governmental constraint to make their own economic decisions.

To encourage economic growth.

Policy encouraged in low-income countries as a response to the appeal of communism. Follow the worlds pass to capitalism to get out of poverty.

Modernization theory- low-income nations need to modernize. Give up traditional culture and institutions in order to be more like the western high-income countries. Low-income nations encouraged to take loans for development projects.

Dependency Theory

Rejects modernization theory view that poverty was the fault of the low-income country. Theorist and economists from low income countries argued instead capitalism was the problem not the solution (influenced by Karl Marx).

Global capitalist relations had made poor countries dependent on rich countries.

Core- extract resources from wealthier countries. Periphery- provide resources to core countries.

Colonialism

19th and early 20th century. When powerful nations colonized other countries to extract raw materials. Post world war II, the exploitation continued with corporations locating in low income countries, utilizing cheep labor and raw materials. Low income countries were prevented from developing on their own.

Dependent development

The idea poor countries can develop economically. But only in ways shaped by their reliance on wealthier countries.

World’s Systems theory

Emphasizes the expansion of a single capitalist world economy. Influenced by dependency theory. With interactions among countries: core, semiperiphery and periphery countries.

Global Economy Chains- Worldwide networks of labor and production. From raw materials to final consumer. Global production of goods has resulted in job loss in the U.S. But a pathway to economic development in other parts of the world.

Theory of global capitalism

Influenced by the rise of transnational corporations who are not loyal to any one country.

Transnational capitalist class is major player in the global economy today (not individual nations). Power is exerted through transnational organizations that oversee global economy. WTO, IMF, and world bank. This social class is international it shares similar interests and lifestyles.

Numbers that illustrate inequality

1/9 people in the world suffer from chronic hunger. The vast majority are in developing countries, Asia, the pacific, Sub-Saharan Africa.

The population is expected to grow from 7.7 billions to 9.7 billion having an enormous impact on global resources.

Health

People in low income countries are more likely to suffer malnourishment, starvation, and famine.

Poor countries often become dumping grounds for consumer electronics and other toxic waste from high income countries and they suffer from environmental pollution from factories. Children in low income countries are 26 times more likely to die before they reach the age of 5 than children in high income countries.

Hunger and Malnutrition

Hunger today is result of both natural and social forces. Shortages are often due to weather and social conflicts. Countries affected by malnutrition are too poor to pay for technologies to increase food production and too poor to afford food imports.

Education and Literacy

These are paths to economic development. Low income countries lack high quality public education. In low income countries only 71% of males and 56% over the age of 15 are able to read and write.

Gender

Social Expectations about behavior regarded as appropriate for members of each sex.

Sex

Biological and anatomical differences distinguishing males and females.

Social Construction of gender

Argue both sex and gender are socially constructed products. How people create gender roles.

Biological Essentialism

The view that differences between men and women are natural and inevitable consequences of the intrinsic biological natures of men and women.

Natural differences theory

Natural differences between men and women.

What does it mean to do gender?

Gender is more learning how to act as a boy or girl something we do on a daily basis. How people act out gender.

Margaret Mead’s research on gender roles

Found wide variability in gender role prescriptions. Rejected university of gender roles. Found difference of gender roles between cultures.

Navajo believe about gender

To maintain harmony must be balanced interrelationship between feminine and masculine in an individual.

Cisgender

Individuals whose gender identity matches their biological sex statistically this is the most common gender.

Transgender

A person identifies as or expresses a gender identity that differs from their sex at birth.

Intersex

An individual that possess both male and female genetallia. This subpopulation is of great interest to scholars.

Functionalist view on gender roles

Sexual divisions of labor women should be at home with the children men should be the bread winner and work. Separate gender roles might be good for society. Created by George Murdock and Talcott Parsons

Expressive social roles

Providing care and security to children and offering emotional support.

Instrumental social roles.

Being the breadwinner.

Feminist theory

Analyzes the centrality on gender in analyzing the social world particularly the uniqueness of women.

Patriarchy

The dominance of men over women. All known societies are this although their are variations in the degree and nature of power men exercise as compared to women.

Gender Inequality

The inequality between men and women in terms of wealth income and status.

Gender inequality education

Reading texts often perpetuate gender images (but this is changing). Teachers interact differently with male and female students. Boys receive more attention and instruction and more often punished.

Gender Inequality college

Men and women differ in majors they choose. Consistent with gender socialization. Women focus on fields with care and nurturing. Men pursue fields that emphasize logic and analysis.

Women are more likely to major in the fields of social work, healthcare, and education. Men in fields like engineering and computer science (STEM).

Gender Inequality in workplace

Women are roughly 1/2 (47%) of the workforce today, but was 30% in 1950.

Nearly 57% of women today are employed outside the home compared to 34% in 1950.

Women entry into the paid labor force dates back to early 1970s. While poor, immigrant, and ethnic minority women have higher rates of employment.

Gender inequality children

In 1978 14% of married women with preschool aged children worked full time year around. In 2018, it is up to 59.6%. One reason for this increase in demand for clerical and service workers. Unmarried mothers are more likely than married mothers to work during their child rearing years.

Occupation Segregation and gender typing

When jobs are stereotyped as either male or female. With women holding jobs with lower status and pay and men holding jobs of higher status and pay.

Today, women are entering occupations once labeled as men’s jobs across range of professions.

The glass ceiling

A promotion barrier that precents women’s upward mobility. When women progress into middle management positions, but not beyond them.

Division of household labor

Childcare, eldercare, and daily housework is done disproportionately done by women. On a typical day 21% of men report doing housework compared to 50% for women. Wives do most of daily chores, while husbands take an occasional tasks. Women also spend more time on child rearing.

Minority Group

A group in society who are disadvantaged because of their physical or cultural characteristics. Not just a numerical category. Group solidarity.

Race

Highly contested concept.

Socially constructed category.

Based on the belief that there are fundamental differences among humans.

Ethnicity

Social identity related to ancestry and cultural differences.

Members of ethnic groups see themselves as culturally distinct from other groups. Language, history, religion, and style of dress. Ethnic differences are learned. Purely social/cultural. For some it is central to their identity for others it is irrelevant or not thought of very often.

Defining Racism

A form of prejudice. Can be defined in different ways. Can refer to specific beliefs of racial supremacy or it can refer to practices such as stereotyping.

Prejudice

Holding preconceived ideas about individuals or groups. Can be positive or negative.

Stereotyping

Thinking in terms of fixed and inflexible categories. Usually involves feelings of hostility and anger.

Scapegoats

Individuals or groups blamed for things that are not their doing. Often direct against groups that are relatively powerless.

Discrimination

Actual behavior that denies resources or rewards to a particular group. Must be distinguished from prejudice.

Color Blind Racism

When racial equality is maintained by color blindness themselves.

When people are unaware of their insensitivity.

A means of maintaining racial inequality without appearing racist. By attempting to act as race doesn’t exist, people perpetuate inequality.

White privilege

The unacknowledged unlearned assets that benefit whites in their daily lives. Taken for granted.

Institutional Racism

When racism occurs in established institution of society. When major institutions have racist practices built into their operations. Ex: redlining in America.

Overt Racism

When racism is expressed overtly through individual attitudes, perceptions, and beliefs.

It can also be sustained by the racist statements of political leaders.

Racial Microaggressions

Slights, indignities or acts of disrespect that are hurtful.

Western colonialism

Lead to peopling of the Americas, south africa, Australia, and new Zeeland. Europe to North America 45 million people. Europe to central America 20 million people. Europe to africa and australia 17 million people. Africa to the americas 10 million people. In all of these cases, the indigenous population were decimated by disease, war, genocide, and European rule.

Colonization

In formerly colonized territories, indigenous populations are now impoverished ethnic minorities. Throughout European expansion, ethnocentric attitudes caused colonists to believe they were on a civilizing mission to the rest of the world. Europeans believed themselves to be superior to other people.

Early Scientific Racism

During early period of colonialism. The misuse of scientific research to justify beliefs about superiority or inferiority of particular racial groups.

Industrial Development

This in the north combined with the mechanization of agriculture in the South produced a progressive movement of African Americans Northward.

Civil Rights Act

In 1964, this was passed by congress and signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson, banning discrimination in public facilities, education, employment, and any agency receiving government funds.

Hispanic

The term Latino refers to people descended from Latin America, while this tends to refer to anyone living the the United States descended from Spanish speaking regions.

What is happening to the percentage of white population in the U.S?

It is decreasing.

Communism

Half a million Cubans fled this after the rise of Fidel Castro in 1959, and the majority of these settled in Florida.

Vietnam

As a result of the war here, some 350,000 refugees from that country alone entered the United States in the 1970s.

Assimilation

This meant that new immigrant groups would assume the attitudes and language of the dominant white community.

Pluralism

A newer model of ethnic relations is this, in which ethnic cultures exist separately yet participate in the larger society’s economic and political life.

Melting pot

The idea that ethnic differences can be combined to create new patterns of behaviors drawing on diverse cultural sources.

Multiculturalism

A condition in which ethnic groups exist separately and share equally in economic and political life.

Immigration

The movement of people into one country from another for the purpose of settlement.

Emigration

The movement of people out of one country to settle in another.

What characterizes migration patterns in the coming years?

Acceleration, diversification, globalization, and feminization.

What is a diaspora?

The dispersal of an ethnic population from an original homeland into foreign areas often in a forced manner or under traumatic circumstances.