ANP Final Review

anatomy

study of the structure and shape of the body's and its parts and relationships to one another

physiology

how the body and its parts work and function

levels of structural organization

atoms -tiny building block
molecules- two or more atoms
cells- smallest units of all living things
tissues- groups of similar cells that have a common function
organs- structure composed of two or more tissue types that perform a specific function for the body
organ system- groups of organs that cooperate to accomplish a common purpose
organism- organ systems make up the living body or the organism

integumentary system

external covering of the body - skin, hair, nails
functions: waterproofs the body, cushions and protects deeper tissue, regulate body temp, perspiration, pressure, pain receptor, and alert body surface

skeletal system

bones, cartilage, ligaments, and joints
functions: supports body, framework, protective function (skull)

muscular system

skeletal muscles
functions: movement, work hand and hand with the skeletal system

nervous system

brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory receptors
functions: control system, responds to stimuli from the inside and outside

endocrine system

endocrine glands, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, thymus, pancreas, pineal, ovaries, testes
functions: control body activities acts slower, produce chemical molecules (hormones)

cardiovascular system

heart and blood vessel
functions: carries oxygen, nutrients, hormones, substances to and from the tissue cells; heart=blood pump; white blood cells protect invaders ex. bacteria

lymphatic system

lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, lymphoid organs, spleen, tonsils
Functions: lymphatic vessels- return fluid leaked from the blood to the blood vessels; lymph nodes and lymphoid organs- help to cleanse the blood and host the cells involved immunity and blood fluids

respiratory system

nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
functions: keep the body constantly supplied with oxygen and to remove carbon dioxide

digestive system

mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestines, large intestines, rectum, liver, pancreas
functions: break down food and deliver products to the blood

urinary system

kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra
functions: removes nitrogenous the from blood into the urine maintain body's water and salt balance, acid-base balance in the blood

reproductive system

testes, scrotum, penis, duct system, ovaries, female vagina
functions: produces offspring

anatomical position

body is erect with the feet parallel and the arms hanging at the sides with the palms facing forward and thumbs pointing away from the body

superior/cranial/cephalad

towards the head end or upper part of a structure or the body; above

inferior/caudal

away from the head end/ toward the lower part of the structure; below

anterior/ ventral

toward or at the front of the body; in the front of

posterior/ dorsal

toward or the back side of the body; behind

medial

toward or the mid-line of the body; the inner side of

lateral

away from the mid-line of the body; outer side of

intermediate

between a more medial and more lateral
structure

proximal

close to the origin of the body part of the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

distal

farther from the origin of a body of part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

superficial

toward a body surface

deep

away from the body surface; more internal

sagittal section

cut made along a lengthwise, longitudinal plane; dividing the body into right and left parts

frontal section

cut made along a lengthwise plane, dividing the body or an organ into anterior/posterior parts

transverse section

cut made along a horizontal plane, dividing the body or organ into superior / inferior parts (cross section)

anterior body landmarks

nasal, orbital, oral, buccal, cervical, sternal, acromial, axillary, thoraric, brachial, antecubital, abdominal, umbilical, pelvic, carpal, digital, coxal, inguinal, pubic, patellar, fernoral, fibular, crural (leg), tarsal

posterior body landmark

cephalic, occipital, deltoid, scapular, vertebral, lumbar, sacral, gluteal, popiteal, sureal

what are the four types of tissue

connective, epithelial, muscle, and nervous

connective tissue

- form ligaments, tendons, fat and bones
- all connective tissues share: well vascularized, extracellular matrix
-connect body parts together by ligaments, tendons, etc
-made of nonliving substances found outside of the cell
-other substances they have are collagen, elastin, mast cells, and macrophages

epithelial

-found in the epidermis and form the lining of internal organs such as the intestines
-line and cover the surfaces of internal organs
- simple (one cell layer)
-stratified (more than one cell layer)
-cells are avascular
-endocrine: makes and releases hormones that travel in the bloodstream and control the actions of other cells or organs; pituitary, thyroid,
adrenal
-exocrine: have ducts, secrete onto a surface; sebaceous/sweat glands, salivary glands

muscle

- make up the majority of the heart
-contract and shorten to produce movement
-muscle cells: microfibers
- types: smooth, cardiac, skeletal

nervous

-make up the majority of the brain and spinal cord
- neurons: transmit signal to muscle and glands
-neuroglia: supports neuronal function

basement membranes

bottom layer that's connected to connective tissues

stratified squamous

Shape/Layers: several layers; at free edge
Location(s): esophagus, mouth, outer portion of skin.
Functions: protects underlying tissues in areas subject to abrasion.

stratified cuboidal/columnar

Shape/Layers: two cell layers; vary in size/shape.
Location(s): ducts of large glands; are rare
Functions: protection; secretion

transitional epithelium

Shape/Layers: somewhat cuboidal; many layers
Location(s): urinary system (bladder, uterus, urethra).
Functions: lines very few organs; allows urine to be stored in bladder; stretches.

glandular epithelium

Shape/Layers: single cell layer; disc shape
Location(s): thyroid, adrenals, pituitary, liver, pancreas.
Functions: secretion (hormones to blood vessels/sweat and oils to skin's surface).

pseudostraified columnar

Shape/Layers: some cells are shorter than others
Location(s): respiratory tract
Functions: absorption, secretion, lines most of the respiratory tract.

apical surface

free/unattached surface

diffusion

epithelial tissues have no blood flow, they are able to receive needed nutrients and expel wastes

areola

type of loose connective tissue that separates the cells of the body from the blood stream; "go-between" for nutrients and wastes to leave and enter the blood stream on their way to and from the body cells

adipose

type of connective tissue also known as a fat. Its purpose is to store excess nutrients and fats as energy. It also serves as a type of insulation for the body.

cartilage

connective tissue that is used as both a protective and supportive structure within the body. This particular type of connective tissue can be found in the nose, ear, ribs, and vertebral disks.

irregular

dense connective tissue with irregularly arranged fibers that provides strength where tension is exerted in various directions such as in the dermis

regeneration

replacement of destroyed tissue by the same kind of cells.

fibrosis

thickening and scarring of connective tissue, usually as a result of injury

effects of scar tissue

Scar not only affects the beauty of body surface, but also can hinder the physiological function of related tissues or organs, and even lead to deformities.

Tissue regeneration

Tissue regeneration includes regeneration of epithelial tissue, regeneration of fibrous tissue, regeneration of cartilage tissue and bone tissue, regeneration of blood vessels, regeneration of muscle tissue, and regeneration of nerve tissue.

serous

doesn't open to the exterior
-parietal (outer layer)
-visceral (inner layer)
-line cavities close to the exterior

mucous

-opens to the exterior
-always wet or moist

peritoneum

lines the abdominal cavity and covers its organ

pleura

surrounds the lungs

pericardium

surrounds the heart

synovial membranes

- type of connective tissue membrane

epidermis

-capable of keratinizing
- layers: stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum glandular, stratum basale

dermis

- made up of dense connective tissue
-"hide"
cutaneous glands reside-contain collagen and elastic fibers
- contain pain and touch receptors

hypo-dermis

- made up of adipose tissue

melanin

freckles and moles: melanin concentrated in one spot
tan: more melanin is produced when you are exposed to the sun
-protects by absorbing harmful rays

blackheads and whiteheads

whiteheads are when a sebaceous gland duct gets blocked by sebum; blackheads are when it's blocked but the accumulated material oxidizes, dries, and darkens

sebaceous gland

oil glands
-secrete their secretions into a hair follicle
-sebum is the product

sudoriferous gland

sweat glands

stratum basale

hair is formed by division

acne

active infection of sebaceous gland

arrector pili

tiny muscle attached to the hair follicle

hair root

the skin and extends down to the deeper layers of the skin

hair shaft

the visible part of the hair that sticks out of the skin

ABCD Rule of Melanoma

A- asymmetry-pigmented spot
B- border irregular; not smooth, but exhibit indents
C- color; different colors (black,brown,blue/red)
D- diameter: bigger than 6mm

ossification

the process of bone formation

epiphyseal plate

It provides for longitudinal growth of the long bones during childhood.

Closed (simple) fracture

a fracture in which the bone breaks cleanly and does not penetrate the skin

Open (compound) fracture

a fracture in which the bone ends penetrate through the skin

first event of the repair of bone fractures

a hematoma is formed as a result of a blood-filled swelling and bone cells deprived of nutrition die

second event of the repair of bone fractures

the break is splinted by a fibrocartilage callus formed by CT cells of various types and it contains some cartilage matrix, some bony matrix, and collagen fibers. these act to splint the broken bone, closing the gap

3rd event of the repair of bone fractures

he bony callus is formed, more osteoblasts and osteoclasts migrate into the area and multiply, Fibrocartilage is gradually replaced by a callus made of spongy bone, called the bony callus.

4th event of the repair of bone fractures

the bony calllus is remodeled in response to the mechanical stresses placed on it, so that it forms a strong permanent "patch" at the fracture site.

axial skeleton

forms the longitudinal axis of the body

fontanels

Fibrous membranes that connect the cranial bones in infants. The rhythm of the baby's pulse can be felt in these "soft spots."
1. Allow the fetal skull to be compressed slightly at birth.
2. Because they are flexible, they allow the infant's brain to
grow during the later part of pregnancy and early infancy.

functions of the bones

support, protection, movement, storage, and blood cell formation

compact bone

dense and looks smooth and homogeneous

spongy bone

composed of small needlelike pieces of bone and lots of open space

long bones

Bones that are
typically longer than they are wide
- made mostly of compact bone. As a rule they have a shaft with heads at both ends.
- Examples: All of the bones of the limbs
(except the wrist and ankle bones)

short bones

Generally cube-shaped
Contain mostly spongy bone.
Examples: ankle and wrist bones, patella
(kneecap), sesamoid bones (form within
tendons)

flat bones

Bones that are thin, flattened, and usually curved, Contain two thin layers of compact bone sandwiched between a layer of spongy bone.
Examples: Skull, ribs, sternum (breastbone)

irregular bones

Bones that do not fit one of the preceding
categories.
Examples: Vertebrae and the hip bones.

diaphysis

Shaft, makes up most of the bone's length and is composed of compact bone.

periosteum

a fibrous CT membrane that covers and protects the diaphysis

epiphyses

Ends of the long bones.
Each end is composed of a thin layer of compact bone
enclosing an area filled with spongy bone.

epiphyseal plate

- A flat plate of hyaline
cartilage seen in young, growing bone.
- Cause the lengthwise growth of a long bone.
- By the end of puberty, when hormones stop long bone
growth, epiphyseal plates have been completely replaced by
bone, leaving only the epipyseal lines to mark their
previous location.

Yellow Marrow Cavity (Medullary Cavity)

- Cavity of a shaft
- Primarily a storage area for adipose (fat) tissue.

red bone marrow

Confined to the cavities of spongy bone of flat bones and the epiphyses of some long bones, which are where red blood cells are produced.

osteocytes

mature bone cells

osteoblasts

bone building cells

osteoclasts

bone destroying cells

lacunae

tiny cavities in bones or cartilage where osteocytes are found

lamellae

concentric circles in which the lacunae are arranged

Central (Haversian) Canals

Canals in bones that are surrounded by lamellae.
- Run lengthwise through the bony matrix, carrying blood
vessels and nerves to all areas of the bone.