History Test 3

Marsilio Ficino

• Taught that the individual man should work to free his immortal soul from its mortal body, which was a platonic idea and in opposition to earlier humanist thought

• He also translated platos work into latin and made them widely accessible

• 1433-1499

Niccolo Machieavelli

• the author of The Prince and the Discourses on Livy, 

• His writings reflect the unstable politics of his home city and his aspirationss for italy to revive the glory of rome

• Most influential author of this era

• Became a prominent official and argued for self governance of italy and garnered opposition of the french occupation of italy 

• His writing helped shift the value of moral worth to one of political effectiveness said one must be judged by their consequences not their actions

• 1469-1527

Baldassare catiogione

• Personification of the ideal of the courtier, he wrote the book of the courtier in which he taught how to attain skills necessary for advancement in princely courts 

• These talents became associated with the renaissance man and they reject older ideals associated with humanism including misogyny 

• 1478-1592

leonardo da vinci

• Personified the renaissance ideal, he was a painter architect musician, mathematician, engineer, and inventor 

• The most adventurous and versatile artist of the period

• He would influence and inspire not only the world of art but also science and technology

• 1452-1519

Michelangelo Buonarroti

• A painter, sculptor, architect and poet who centered the masculine ideals in his work 

• Most known for painting the sistine chapel and his sculpture ‘david’

• Helped revive classical greek and roman art and changed the way art was perceived and taught by bringing realism into art

• 1475-1564

Donatello

• First acclaimed master of renaissance sculpture (1386-1466)

• Laid a foundation for and inspired future sculptors and became known as the father of the renaissance

Christian Humanism

• Fueled the reformation largely in part due to erasmus’s teachings

• Embraced the wisdom of antiquity like other humanists, but Sought ethical guidance from biblical and religious precepts 

• Mostly in northern europe and originated around the end of the 15th century and would become more popular throughout the first half of the 16th century

Desiderius Erasmus

• the humanist leader of northern europe (1469-1536)

• Promoted the philosophy of christ and believed that society had lost sight of the gospels teachings

• Published a latin translation of the greek new testament, which would play a critical role in the early stages of the reformation

Thomas More

• 1478-1535

• Close friend of erasmus and well known humanist who was appointed lord chancellor of england in 1529

• Wrote the book utopia which was a social critique of england 

• He was eventually executed for refusing to take an oath acknowledging Henry to be the head of the Church of England and has since been canonized by the Catholic Church as a martyr

Albrecht Durer

• German artist who was the first northerner to master proportion and perspective 

• Drew inspo from christian legends and the humanism of erasmus 

• Influenced the northern renaissance since he merged both italian and northern art

• Exemplified christian humanism

Ivan the Great

• First muscovite prince to adopt a distinctive imperial agenda 

• Established muscovy as a dominant power by annexing large sums of land and rebuilding his kingdom. Laid the administrative foundations for a centralized russian state

• Married the niece of the last byzantine emperor which inspired russian rulers to claim that moscow was the third Rome 

• 1462-1505

ferdinand of aragon

• Funded the expedition of christopher columbus in 1492

• Ferdinand of Aragon married the heiress to Castile, Isabella. Their union allowed them to pursue several ambitious policies, including the conquest of Granada, the last Muslim principality in Spain, and the expulsion of Spain’s large Jewish community.

• Became king in 1479

• Created europe's most powerful army which conquered the last remaining muslim principality

Isabella of Castille

• Mid 15th century to early 16th century became queen in 1474

• Married ferdinand of aragon 

• Granted three ships to christopher columbus who would claim portions of the new world for spain 

• Created erupoes most powerful army with ferdiinand

Reconquista

• Spain sought to forge a single homogenous community in order to make it pure and christian 

• Sought to Conquer territories in the iberian peninsula in order to unify them under christian rule 

• Led to jewish and muslim expulsion and forced conversion 

• Also led to spanish rulers and adventurers seeking fortune overseas

Henry the navigator

• 1394–1460 A member of the Portuguese royal family, Henry encouraged the exploration and conquest of western Africa and the trade in gold and slaves

• Henry and early modern sailors gradually developed more accurate charts of the landscapes where they sailed, known as portolans.

Plantation Slavery

• a new kind of slave-based sugar plantation began to emerge in Portugal’s Cape Verde Islands in the 1560s, and then extended southward into the Gulf of Guinea

• this plantation model that would be exported to Brazil by the Portuguese and to the Caribbean islands of the Americas by their Spanish conquerors, with incalculable human and environmental costs

Christopher Columbus

• (1451–1506) A Genoese sailor who persuaded King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain to fund his expedition across the Atlantic, with the purpose of discovering a new trade route to Asia. His miscalculations landed him in the Bahamas and the island of Hispaniola in 1492.

• Christopher's voyage happened after the spanish thone finished the reconquista and had the resources to invest in foreign exploration, his success in finding foreign lands would upset the power balance between portugal and spain resulting in the world being divided between them by the pope

Conquistador

• The spanish term for conquerors in the 15th and 16th century . These individuals campaigned against indigenous people in central and south america. 

• Their success was assisted by the diseases brought  with them that dwindled native populations and the complex rivalries that existed between societies they encountered

Hernan Cortes

(1485–1547) conquistador who was responsible for the fall of the aztec empire in 1521 due to the population being weakened by the plague brought by explorers, resulting in Mexico falling to the spanish crown

Montezuma

• Aztec king in the early 16th century when the empire fell at the hands of the spanish explorers

• The empire was large and wealthy under his rule, but would ultimately fall due to the onset of plague

Francisco Pizarro

• A spanish conquistador who toppled the inca empire in peru in 1533

• Took advantage of an ongoing civil war and the outbreak of smallpox

Johannes Gutenberg

• 1398-1468 inventor of the printing press which revolutionized printing and resulted in a cultural shift where literacy was more valued 

• Allowed artistic and intellectual ideas to be rapidly spread across europe and made it possible for states and empires to be more centralized

Martin Luther1483-1546

• 1483-1546

• A German monk and professor of theology whose critique of the papacy launched the Protestant Reformation. This would result in europe becoming increasingly divided religiously and thereby weakening christianity

• Emphasized priesthood of all believers and the scripture being the ultimate source, which would both play a part in the peasant war

Justification by faith alone

• One of luther’s central beliefs, meaning that salvation was achieved through personal faith, not ritual, doctrine, or indulgences

• Response to the churches use of indulgences and a direct challenge to the catholic church

Authority of the scripture

One of luthers central beliefs, that the Bible took precedence over all other Church traditions, including the teachings of theologians and the sacraments, and that any beliefs or practices that were not explicitly grounded in scripture should be rejected as human inventions.

Priesthood of all believers

• Christian believers were spiritually equal before God, which meant that priests, monks, and nuns had no special authority

• This challenged the medieval separation of people inot clergy and laity

Indulgences

• Grants exempting Catholic Christians from the performance of penance, either in life or after death.First conceptualized in the late 11th century but not for sale til the 14th century.  The abusive trade in indulgences was a major catalyst of the Protestant Reformation.

• Martin luther would write his 95 theses in response to the sale of indulgences in 1517

Charles V

• Holy Roman emperor and the most powerful man in Europe in the early 16th century, running a territory that sprawled across the continent and beyond, to the New World

• Launches a military campaign in an effort to stop the spread of protestantism but it failed.  he did pass the edict of worms which banned luthers writings and declared him a heretic but it was not enforced

Diet of Worms

• The select council of the Church that convened in the German city of Worms and condemned Martin Luther on a charge of heresy in 1521 

• However, the edict was never enforced and protestantism spread quickly

Ulrich Zwingli

• Founded Zwinglianism, which was a form of protestantism

• In 1522 he began attacking rome and the authority of the roman catholic church 

• Representative of how protestantism took different forms as it spread

John Calvin

• (1509–1564) French-born theologian and reformer whose radical form of Protestantism was adopted in many Swiss cities, notably Geneva.

• Believed some individuals were predestined for salvation and others damnation.

• Geneva became a theocracy under his guidance

anabaptist

• A form of protestantism that believed that only adults could be baptized, making it very unpopular

• A group of extemsists gained control of the city of munster in 1534 for a year and after anabaptists were persecuted throughout europe

Peace of Ausburg

• A settlement negotiated in 1555 among factions within the Holy Roman Empire, it formulated the principle cuius regio, eius religio (“he who rules, his religion”): the inhabitants of any given territory should follow the religion of its ruler, whether Catholic or Protestant.

• Resulted in tensions that would contribute to the 30 years war

Henry VIII

• King of England from 1509 until his death, Henry rejected the authority of the Roman Church in 1534 when the pope refused to annul his marriage to his queen, Catherine of Aragon; Henry became the founder and spiritual leader of the Church of England.

• Church of england was catholic in organization but followed many protestant ideas, but would return to catholicism under Mary

Elizabethan Settlement

In 1559 Elizabeth l the daughter of Henry VIII, repealed Mary’s catholic legislation and declared herself supreme governor of the english church. Under elizabeth, protestantism and english forms of nationalism fused into a conviction that god had chosen england for greatness

ignatius Loyala

A young spanish nobleman in the early to mid 16th century and The founder of the society of jesus which was a force that propelled that counter-reformation

Society of Jesus

• A religious order founded by Ignatius Loyala to combat the spread of protestantism in 1540

• by far the most militant of the religious orders fostered by the Catholic reform movements of the sixteenth century: not merely a monastic society but a company of soldiers sworn to defend the faith through eloquence, persuasion, and correct instruction

Council of Trent

• The name given to a series of meetings held in the Italian city of Trent between 1545 and 1563, when leaders of the Roman Church reaffirmed Catholic doctrine and instituted internal reforms.

Resulted in the rebirth of the catholic church and the counter-reformation

Cuius regio, eius religio

• The governing principle of the peace of augsburg

• Meant that individuals would follow the religion of the ruler of their principality

Counter and Catholic Reformation

• The movement to counter the Protestant Reformation, initiated by the Catholic Church at the Council of Trent in 1545.

• Also propelled by the society of jesus as jesuits were dispatched to teach in the americas, india, and china

Columbian Exchange

• The accelerated and unprecedented global movement of people, plants, animals and bacteria beginning in the 16th century 

• Was a fundamental turning point in history as it introduced new agricultural products and animals as well as encouraging the spread of diseases and devastating invasions of invasive species. 

Encomienda

• The encomienda system was an extension of the earlier reconquista of Spain originally set up to manage Muslim populations in territories captured by Christian crusaders.

• was a formal system of forced labor in Spanish colonies intended to encourage conquest and colonization.

• This system was incredibly effective but native people were exploited for labor, especially mining

• Because the spanish settlers did not change the  natives patterns of life, it resulted in cultural assimilation by european settlers

Indenture

•  refers to the contract that bound a servant to a master for a set period of time, was used to bring thousands of european laborers across the atlantic 

• About 80% of the people in the chesapeake colony were indentured servants

Triangular trade

• The eighteenth-century commercial Atlantic shipping pattern that took rum from New England to Africa, traded it for slaves taken to the West Indies, and brought sugar back to New England to be processed into rum.

• The atlantic world economy  and many aspects of everyday life became highly tied to the slave trade, as it was the engine that created the modern globalized, capitalist economy

Price Revolution

• An unprecedented inflation in prices during the latter half of the sixteenth century, resulting in part from the enormous influx of silver bullion from Spanish America which lowered the value of currency and partly from the population boom in europe after the black death without an increase in food supply

• This destabilized the european economy and caused widespread panic

French wars of religion

• conflicts in France between Protestants ( huguenots) and Catholics

• Between two and four million people died from violence, famine, or disease caused by the conflict and it damaged the power of the french monarchy

Huguenots

• The substantial protestant minorities in france that made up about 20% of the population by the 1560’s

• Political rivalries led the government to break down along the religious lines of the huguenots against the catholic aristocracy

Henry IV of France

The king of france in the late 16th century who renounced his catholic faith to placate the catholic majority but granted toleration to the huguenots through the edict of nantes

Phillip II of Spain

• King of spain from 1556 to 1598 who was briefly the king of ireland and england during his marriage to queen mary of England

• Caused a conflict in the netherlands which turned into a religious one because philip was catholic but the netherlands were mainly calvinist. This further catalyzed the protestant opposition

30 years war

• (1618–1648) Beginning as a conflict between Protestants and Catholics in Germany, this series of skirmishes escalated into a general European war fought on German soil by armies from Sweden, France, and the Holy Roman Empire.

• Was one of the longest and bloodiest conflicts in history which pushed persecuted minorities to emigrate and propagated religious rivalries across the atlantic world

Gustavus Adolphus

• 1611-1632

  • The protestant king of sweden who became one of the greatest military commanders of all time, his army was the first modern army 

  • By the time of his death sweden had become global power rivaling spain and russia in size and prestige

Peace of Westphalia

An agreement reached at the end of the Thirty Years’ War that altered the political map of Europe. France emerged as the predominant power on the Continent.

Cardinal Richelieu

• The first minister to King Louis XIII who is considered to have ruled France in all but name, he centralized religious power and suppressed dissent 

• He amended the edict of nantes and prohibited french protestants from settling in Quebec

English Civil War

• The most radical conflict in europe during this time period

• Caused by regional hostilities, religious disagreements, and fiscal struggles

• Led to the unprecedented  criminal trial and execution of a king in the mid 17th century

Oliver Cromwell

• The leader of the protestant army in the mid 17th century, he seized control of the government and ejected all moderates from the parliament by force

• Resulted in parliament putting the king on trial and condemned him to death for treason 

• he then possessed extraordinary power as the lord protector for life

Parliament

• Heavily involved in the english civil war in the 17th century

• Charles declared war without parliaments supprt and they responded in 1628 by imposing the petition of right which made taxes not voted on by parliament illegal 

• When cromwell came to power he ejected all moderates from parliament and they would proceed to put the king on trial and condemn him to death

William Shakespeare

•  (1564–1616) An English playwright who flourished during the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I. Shakespeare received a basic education in his hometown of Stratford-upon-Avon and worked in London as an actor before achieving success as a dramatist and poet.

• His play the tempest captures the doubt and uncertainty caused by europes extension into the atlantic world, commented on the evils of colonization

Michel de Montaigne

• 1533- 1592, french nobleman and philosopher who applied skepticism to traditional ways of knowing and adopted a practice of profound introspection 

• Best known for his essays which conclude that no religion or government is perfect, and no belief is worth fighting or dying for

Scientific Revolution

• Scientific breakthroughs in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries gave rise to theoretical breakthroughs in explaining the physical universe as well as advances in the practical knowledge of artisans who built mechanical devices such as telescopes or microscopes.

• Behind these efforts to understand the natural world lay a nearly universal conviction that the natural world had been created by God. Religious belief spurred scientific study.

Ptolemaic System

• A system of understanding the universe based on the teachings of ptolemy of alexandrias belief that the earth was the center of the universe and the heavens orbited it

• Confirmed the belief in the purposefulness of gods universe

• However by the late middle ages astronomers knew there were flaws with this system leading to copernicus’s work

Nicolaus Copernicus

• 1473- 1543 a devout catholic who believed god’s universe would be neater than the ptolemaic system 

• He simplified the geometry of astronomy and reordered the ptolemaic system so that the order of the orbits of the planets was comprehensible 

• His ideas contradicted centuries of astronomical thought and his hypotheses would be considered useful but unrealistic for many decades after

Tycho ‘brahe

• A danish astronomer who modified copernicus’s theories, he believed the careful study of the heavens would unlock the secrets of the universe 1546- 1601

• The danish king granted him an island to build an observatory where he meticulously charted the night sky for 30 years and compiled the finest set of astronomical data in europe

• suggested that the planets orbited the sun and that the whole system orbited a stationary earth.

Johannes Kepler

• A mathematician who drew on tychos data and corrected the copernican model

• Developed laws of planetary motion  in 1609

• He believed understanding these laws would allow humans to share gods wisdom and understand the secrets of the universe

Galileo Galilei

• (1564–1642) Italian physicist and inventor; the implications of his ideas raised the ire of the Catholic Church, and he was forced to retract most of his findings.

• provided powerful evidence in support of the Copernican model and laid the foundation for a new physics. What was more, he wrote in the vernacular (Italian) as well as in Latin, and his writings were widely translated and read, raising awareness of changes in natural philosophy across Europe

• His discoveries made him the nost famous scientific figure of all time

James Ussher

• The archbishop of armagh in ireland, who published an account of the earths creation in 1654. He used both biblical and secular sources

• Claimed the world was created in 4004 bce and attempted construct a time line for world history 

• His decision to include other sources alongside the bible was a significant departure from the common religious approaches of the time

Natural Philosophy

• the study of matter, motion, optics, or the circulation of blood

• Grounded in observation and mathematics 

• The trial of galileo showed that natural philosophy and church authority could not coexist

Francois Bernier

•  A french doctor in the mid 17th century who served as a physician at a court  in northern india before returning to paris and reporting on indian society

• Suggested that human populations could be divided into 4 or 5 races, now recognized as the first attempt to define the word race in european history

Francis Bacon

• 1561-1626

  • trained as a lawyer, served in Parliament, and was briefly the lord chancellor to James I of England.

  • advocated an inductive approach to knowledge: amassing evidence from many discrete observations to draw general conclusions.

• His work connected new science with the expansion of european colonialism and formed the foundation of modern research 

• argued that scientific knowledge was best tested through the cooperative efforts of scientists performing experiments that could be repeated and verified

Rene Descartes

• 1596-1650

• Wrote the discourse on method in which he recounted his dismay at the strange theories he encountered in his traditional education

• He believed you should doubt everything you don’t know and emphasized the human ability to think 

• Empahsized deductive reasoning unlike bacon

Royal Society

• In 1660, the newly crowned King Charles II granted a group of natural philosophers a royal charter to establish the Royal Society of London, for the “improvement of natural knowledge.

• Would pursue bacon’s goal of collective research and helped restore a sense of order and invite rational discussion