Mem and Cog Exam 2

Concept as rules

By the ___ representation, a concept may be represented as a strict definition, usually expressed linguistically (not always)

Problems with concept as rules

can it be done? Is the rule comprehensive? Do all chairs adhere? It can be difficult, perhaps even beyond ability, to generate a comprehensive rule to adequately define a particular category

Concepts as prototypes

a concept may be represented as an aggregate entity which on average most frequently reflects the essential features of the category. Objects in the environment are compared with the prototype to determine category membership

problems with concepts as prototypes

a prototype may not necessarily reflect a true instance of a category. prototype models sometimes struggle to predict empirical results

Concepts as exemplars

a concept may be represented as a memory trace of a category instance. Objects and events are categorized based on similarities to sets of exemplars in memory, weaknesses: how can we form new categories if we have no memories for a completely novel object?

Sensory memory

refers to an initial stage of information storage; ___ from the environment is collected through sensory organs (eyes, ears, nose, etc), that info is stored briefly (generally less than 3 seconds) for processing into short-term memory or discard

iconic memory

refers to sensory memory for visual stimuli

echoic memory

auditory stimuli

haptic memory

tactile stimuli

Short-term memory

act an intermediary system between information in the environment and permanent memory storage; allows info to be processed into permanent storage; allows info to be extracted from permanent storage. Limits: 3 seconds

Acoustic encoding

short term memory can encode based on how it sounds;

working memory

provides temporary storage and manipulates information for cognitive use. Working memory proposes answers to the question: what are we doing with information in short-term memory while it is there?

long term memory

some information which passes through short-term memory ends up stored more permanently (true permanence is a subject of debate)

serial position effect

the probability of recalling an item in a list depends upon where it fell in that list sequentially

recency effect

the last item(s) in a list tend to be the easier to recall

primacy effect

the first item(s) in a list tend to be easier to recall

context

important factor on retrieval of long term memory. Ex: those who learned a list of items underwater recalled better underwater than on land

Declarative (explicit) memory

refers to memories of factual information. Can be recalled consciously, semantic memory, episodic memory,

procedural (implicit) memory

a type of memory does not generally require conscious retrieval effort, it refers to memory relating to the execution of actions. The memories being accessed are difficult to verbalize, if even possible (getting dressed, hitting a baseball), there may be no conscious recollection of these memories

semantic memory

(declarative memory) refers to memory of generally knowledge, facts, and categories. Three characteristics: organized by content, allows interference, not ties to the origin of the memory; allow us to generalize (form and access concepts)

Hierarchical model

proposed explanation for organization of semantic memory, specific memories are nodes, and they are associated by links. predicts that reaction times are slower in recall the farther one must climb the ladder

problems with hierarchical model

no accounting for typicality. Is a robin a bird? fast; is a penguin a bird? slower; same distance on the ladder

Episodic memory

(declarative memory) refers to the memory of autobiographical events; is associated with its source, unlike semantic memory; allow us to form boundaries to generalizations with exceptions

ex: bday parties, yesterday’s lecture, specific conversations

anterograde amnesia

refers to a loss of the ability to remember new information, losses info gained after an accident or operation ; typically struggle to learn new factual information or form new memories of events

retrograde amnesia

refers to a loss of the ability to remember old information; losses info gained before an accident or operation

Schemas

are structured “units” of knowledge that package pieces of information contained in memory and the relations between them

advantages of schemas

organization: connecting related knowledge for retrieval

efficiency: alleviates the need to remember countless distinct, separate facts with learned relations and concepts

Inference: existing knowledge organized in schemas can be applied to understand new information

Reconstructive memory

Might have to retrieve memories piece by piece; which implies the possibility of putting them together incorrectly

eyewitness testimony

often serve as evidence presented in cases relating to crimes of any severity. Witnesses rely on their own episodic memory to recall and recount events pertaining to cases. Mistakes happen and can have dire consequences. What causes them?

Misinformation acceptance

this might not be a memory issue in the first place! A person might not remember at all, and they simply trust that the information they are given is true

flashbulb memories

refer to our memories of highly significant events, or those that seem to be “burned” into our minds. We tend to assume that these memories hold special importance, and that we recall them with accuracy and precision

mnemonic method

a way to improve memory. They developed patterns and associations with otherwise dry data, and their ability to remember it drastically improved

Metamemory

refers to our assessments, interpretation, and awareness of our own memory capacities ex: “I am decent at remembering names, but I struggle with faces” Research says that we do a good job of interpreting our own memory

Analog representations

mimic the structure of a referent object including the relationships among its components

propositional representations

are abstract relations that do not reflect any sensory modality, such as the direction from A to B

Dual-coding hypothesis

images can be stored as analogs or propositions, but other types of knowledge and information may not have the analog option

Face recognition

we seem to be uniquely good at recognizing facial details, more than for most other types of images

mental rotation

these studies have been critical toward addressing if people use mental images representation

picture superiority effect

converging evidence suggests that we tend to remember images and pictures more effectively than abstract information

selective interference

Basic level advantage

in categorization, it shows that you would say “cat” over animal or Siamese cat. But may not be universal

Category Structure

Usually refers to 3 details. 1. The number of items in a category (4 objects) 2. the dimensions that determine category membership (color, shape, size) 3. the relationship between those dimensions and their values (these have 2 of the above dimensions)

Conceptual Combination

help us to make sense novel entities. For example: Gargantuan ant (we can imagine it even though we haven’t seen it)

Selective Interference

when imagined stimuli (such as imaging a tree) only interferes with the real stimuli if it uses the same sense (if participant sees a visual stimuli)