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Society: continuity and change-dukes
Remained under aristocratic domination- few hereditary peers
Highest peerage title, duke, carried inherent dangers: each of 4 ducal titles that existed between 1547-1572 Somerset, Northumberland, Suffolk and Norfolk- holders suffered traitors’ deaths
After 1572 Liz careful not to create any more dukes
Nobility more peaceful- less concerned with defence
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Below dukes, other 4 ranks of peerage sought to enhance their prestige through massive building project-ensure they could accommodate queen in appropriate surroundings on royal progresses. Houses like Burghley
Liz herself chose not to copy this grandeur-modified some her fathers projects
Other layers of society differed little
Gap between poor and rich widened
Beginnings of consumer society amongst prosperous landed, mercantile and professional classes
Landed incomes increased, esp after 1570
Poorer sectors of population vulnerable to enclosure and to persistent decline in real wages
by end of her reign population was ~4 million
Bulk of people lived in countryside. Only large city was London, whose population, much of which now lived outside bounds of City, was probably as high as 150,000
London acted as a huge magnet for migrants from other parts of country
Largest provincial cities were Norwich and Bristol, but few other cities had populations in excess of 5000
Society: continuity and change-gentry
general term- wide social range
knights, figures of national importance, Sir Christopher Hatton, modest local landowners, county gentlemen and esquires
County gentlemen and esquires dominated local government through their work as JPs and who often took on the burden of local office without receiving any tangible rewards
Gentry class increased in size during Liz’s reign-proportion who were wealthy went up
Poverty and poor relief-Deserving Poor
Later years of Liz’s life saw further measures to relieve poverty:
Act of 1572 established principle that local ratepayers should be required to pay a rate for relief of their own poor
Poor Law Act of 1576 was first act to attempt to create a national system of poor relief to be financed and administered locally
Under the Act, towns were required to make provision for employment of deserving poor
Further Acts in 1598 and 1601 completed legislative process. Under Elizabethan Poor Law Act of 1601- parish became designated as institution required to raise rates for, and to administer, poor relief
Each parish was to appoint an overseer of the poor who was to appoint an overseer of poor rates and the appropriate distribution of relief to the poor
Overseers’ key responsibilities were relieving impotent poor, setting able-bodied to work and apprenticing poor children. Their activities were supervised by JP
Poverty and poor relief-Undeserving Poor
Treatment of undeserving poor remained harsh
An extremely repressive and ultimately unenforceable Act against vagrancy passed in 1547
Although quickly repealed, notion remained that undeserving poor should be whipped
1572- Act added branding to range of punishments available to authorities
During panic of 1597, Act passed which laid down that first-time offenders whipped and sent back to parish of their birth; repeat offenders could be executed
Problems in the regions
England under Liz was more unified State than France or Spain- more peaceable
Liz’ reign witnessed only 1 serious rebellions-Northern Rebellion of 1569- which collapsed quickly, compared with greater social disorder in Spain and outright civil war across more than 3 decades in France
Tendency of aristocracy and greater gentry to abandon fortified castles and instead to build comfortable but indefensible country houses suggested confidence in social order and peace that was all more remarkable given limited resources of State to enforce its power.
Problems in Ireland
Ireland should be subjected to policy of ‘Englishness’ in religious and secular matters
Liz proclaimed Supreme Governor of Church of Ireland in 1560
She lacked power to impose Protestantism on a largely Catholic, mostly Gaelic population-language, customary laws and landownership differed hugely from England
The ‘get rich quick’ mentality of English incomers and frequent use of martial law led to bad relations with Gaelic Irish and Old English
No surprise that rebellions broke out in south against English rule in 1569-1573 and 1579-1582- latter rebellion linked with a Spanish incursion into County Kerry
Anglo-Irish relations further soured by brutality of response of Lord Deputy of Ireland, Lord Grey of Wilton, to latter rebellion
3rd Irish rebellion, closely linked to Anglo-Spanish war, proved much more difficult and expensive for English Crown to suppress.
3rd Irish Rebellion
1595 Rebellion: Hugh O’Neill (Earl of Tyrone) led a rebellion in Ulster.
Spanish Involvement: Spain tried to assist with an Irish contingent in the Armada of 1596, increasing English fears.
Rebel Victory: Tyrone’s forces won the Battle of Yellow Ford (1598), gaining control of most of Ireland beyond the Pale, threatening to create an independent, Catholic Ireland with Spanish support.
Essex's Failure (1599): Elizabeth sent the Earl of Essex as Lord Lieutenant, but he disobeyed orders, made a truce with Tyrone, and returned to court, leaving Ireland vulnerable.
Tyrone's Advance: Tyrone moved south, near Kinsale (1601), aiming to join Spanish troops.
English Recovery: Under Lord Mountjoy and Sir George Carew, English forces improved. Despite 3,000 Spanish troops landing in Kinsale (Sept 1601), the English defeated Tyrone on Christmas Eve.
End of Rebellion: Tyrone retreated to Ulster and negotiated peace in March 1603. Unknown to him, Elizabeth had died, and Mountjoy offered favorable terms to attend the new king, James I
Wales
Welsh border no longer posed problems.
Integration of Wales and England continued under Elizabeth
Wales remained relatively poor; poverty was endemic.
Linguistic and cultural differences persisted.
Welsh gentry prospered under Elizabeth.
Border administration structures, like the Council of Wales and the Marches, continued functioning.
Welsh language ceased as a medium of government.
Preserved in religion with translations of the Book of Common Prayer and the Bible into Welsh.
Dictionaries and grammars supported Welsh language preservation.
Many Welshmen implicated in the Essex rebellion (1601), suggesting dissatisfaction with the political situation near the end of Elizabeth’s reign.
the North of England
Scotland as an independent state kept the possibility of conflict alive.
Lawless subculture prevalent on the borders (casual violence, sheep/cattle rustling).
Responsibility for border security fell to wardens of the three border marches.
Wardens historically chosen from local northern magnate families (e.g., Percies, Darces).
Henry VIII began appointing southern nobles as wardens, continued by Elizabeth.
Southern appointees struggled to control local landed families and border clans due to lack of local landholding and influence.
Social discontent and rebellions
Elizabeth’s reign largely a period of order despite hardships.
One significant rebellion: Northern Rebellion (1569)—not driven by poor's aspirations.
Severe harvest failure, rising prices, and plague caused widespread hardship.
Social stability largely endured despite desperation.
Feared vagabondage, treated "undeserving poor" harshly.
Food riots occurred in London, Kent, Hampshire, and Norfolk
Not a true rising but a desperate act by four impoverished men aiming to seize weapons and march on London.
Heavy-handed response by authorities revealed fears of social unrest, which were exaggerated.
The Northern Rebellion, 1569- 70
Mainly in Durham and North Riding of Yorkshire, with a linked rising in Cumberland (1570).
Led by Earls of Northumberland and Westmorland (northern nobility).
Motivated by:
Religious fervor (Catholicism).
Political motives (felt dishonored, loss of control in northern governance).
Linked to courtly conspiracy:
Westmorland’s brother-in-law, Duke of Norfolk, involved.
Plan for Norfolk to marry Mary, Queen of Scots, aiming to restore her to the Scottish throne.
Began on 9 Nov 1569.
Rebels seized Durham (14 Nov), held Catholic Mass in cathedral.
Marched on York but didn’t attempt capture or move south.
Returned to Durham, besieged Barnard Castle (fell 14 Dec).
Crown force approached; leaders disbanded and fled to Scotland.
Restarted in Jan 1570 by Leonard Dacre.
Defeated at Naworth by Lord Hunsdon.
Reasons for Failure:
Disorganized, unclear objectives, Poor leadership, No expected foreign support, Decisive Crown response.
Effective local action and court involvement (Cecil studied a map of Durham for strategy).
Ruthless punishment: mass executions (numbers unclear).
Highlighted geographical limits (support confined to Durham and North Riding).
Conservative northern nobility outside the rebellion did not support it.
Little enthusiasm for replacing Elizabeth, despite limited support for her government.
Exposed challenges in governing the north, managing localities, and raising forces.
