Human Growth and Development

Human Development

A lifelong process of physical, behavioral, cognitive, and emotional growth and change.

Nature vs. Nurture

The debate over whether an individual's development is primarily influenced by genetics and biological factors (nature) or by environment and experiences (nurture). Most scientists today view these as interconnected.

Growth

A steady and permanent rise in physical size.

Development

The advancement of motor and cognitive abilities.

Cephalocaudal principle

Development follows a head-to-toe progression. (e.g., an infant controls their head before their legs).

Proximodorsal principle

Development progresses from the center of the body outward. (e.g., the spine develops before the fingers and toes).

Simple to complex

Development evolves from simple to complex skills. (e.g., head control is mastered before crawling).

Continuous process

Development is ongoing, with periods of growth spurts and slow, steady growth.

General to specific

Development occurs from large muscle movements to more refined movements.

Individualized rates

Development varies from person to person. Each individual has their own growth timetable.

Conception

The beginning of human development, when a single sperm fertilizes an egg. At this moment, all inherited characteristics are determined.

Prenatal Development

The period from conception to birth (38-40 weeks).

Zygote Period

The period from conception to 2 weeks, when the fertilized egg undergoes cell division and travels to the uterus, implanting in the uterine wall.

Embryonic Period

The period from 3 to 8 weeks, when body structures and internal organs develop.

Ectoderm

The cell layer that becomes hair, skin, and the nervous system.

Mesoderm

The cell layer that becomes muscles, bones, and the circulatory system.

Endoderm

The cell layer that becomes the lungs and digestive system.

Fetal Period

The period from 9 weeks to birth, when the fetus grows larger, and its body systems begin to function.

Age of viability

The ability to survive outside the womb, which is between 22 and 28 weeks.

Newborn Stage

The period from birth to 28 days.

Apgar Score

Assesses a newborn's health at one and five minutes after birth based on Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity, and Respiration. A score of 7 or higher is considered normal.

Physical Characteristics of Newborns

Includes large head in proportion to body, soft spots (fontanels) on the skull, fine body hair (lanugo), and a white, cheese-like covering (vernix caseosa) on the skin.

Reflexes

Newborns have various reflexes that indicate normal neurologic function.

Rooting Reflex

Stimulation: Stroke the cheek or touch the side of the mouth. Response: Turns toward the source, opens mouth, and begins to suckle.

Moro Reflex

Stimulation: Sudden movement or loud noise. Response: Startles, extends arms and legs, then pulls them inward.

Tonic neck Reflex

Stimulation: Turn the head to the side while supine. Response: Extends the arm and leg on that side.

Sucking Reflex

Stimulation: Mouth touched by an object. Response: Suckles on the object.

Babinski Reflex

Stimulation: Stroke the sole of the foot. Response: Toes fan outward and the foot turns inward.

Grasping Reflex

Stimulation: Palm touched by an object. Response: Grasps the object in the palm.

Blinking Reflex

Stimulation: Flash of light or puff of air. Response: Closes eyes.

Stepping Reflex

Stimulation: Held upright with feet touching a surface. Response: Moves feet as if to walk.

Infancy

The period from 1 month through 1 year, characterized by rapid growth.

Milestones in Infancy

Develop the ability to hold their head erect, grasp objects, roll over, and sit unsupported. By 1 year, they can pull themselves up and walk while holding onto furniture.

Brain Development in Infancy

The brain grows rapidly, enhanced by stimulation, nutrition, and communication.

Toddlerhood

The period from 12 months to 36 months.

Motor Skills in Toddlerhood

Walks and runs with ease. Can use a cup and spoon.

Cognitive Development in Toddlerhood

Develops object permanence (understanding an object still exists when unseen).

Play in Toddlerhood

Engages in parallel play, playing alongside but not with other children.

Language Development in Toddlerhood

Begins with two-word sentences and progresses to short sentences by age 3.

Physical Development in Preschool Age

Characterized by slow and steady growth.

Gross and fine motor skills

Skills that become more refined as a child develops.

Play

Shifts from parallel to associative play and eventually to cooperative play.

Middle Childhood

A developmental stage from 6 to 12 years characterized by slow and consistent growth.

Social Development in Middle Childhood

Peer relationships become increasingly important, and friendships evolve.

Adolescence

A developmental stage from 12 to 20 years marked by puberty and dramatic physical growth.

Puberty

A time of dramatic physical growth and the emergence of primary and secondary sex characteristics.

Concerning Development in 6-month-old Infant

Inability to hold head steady for brief periods, no response to stimulation, grasping with only one hand.

Expected Development in 6-month-old Infant

Enjoying vocal play, rolling from front to side, beginning to sit unsupported, transferring objects from hand to hand, pushing up with arms straight, uttering sounds.

Biomedical Model of Development

A model that focuses only on biological factors in human growth and development.

Biopsychosocial Model of Development

A model that includes biological, psychological, sociocultural factors, and life-cycle forces.

Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory

A theory explaining how individuals and their environments interact to influence human growth and development.

Developmental Milestones

Signify the achievement of a skill that most individuals accomplish during a certain age range.

Sigmund Freud's Psychosexual Development

A theory describing five psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.

Oral Stage

The stage of psychosexual development from birth to 18 months, focusing on the mouth.

Anal Stage

The stage of psychosexual development from 18 months to 3 years, focusing on elimination and toilet training.

Phallic Stage

The stage of psychosexual development from 3 to 6 years, focusing on resolving the Oedipus or Electra complex.

Latency Stage

The stage of psychosexual development from 6 to 12 years, focusing on the development of defense mechanisms.

Genital Stage

The stage of psychosexual development from 12 years to adulthood, focusing on reaching sexual maturity.

Key Achievement in Oral Stage

Weaning from the bottle or breast, helping the infant learn delayed gratification.

Fixation

Characterized by too much or too little gratification, leading to immature personality development and preoccupation with oral activities such as drinking alcohol, smoking, or overeating.

Toilet Training Readiness

Markers include walking, putting on and removing clothing, following instructions, expressing a desire to toilet, and staying dry through a nap or through the night.

Oedipus Complex

A Freudian concept where boys develop an unconscious sexual attraction to their mother and perceive their father as a rival for her affection.

Electra Complex

A Freudian concept where girls develop an unconscious sexual attraction toward their father and wish to eliminate their mother as a competitor for their father's affection.

Critique of Freud's Psychosexual Theory

Considered controversial due to its difficulty in scientific evaluation, reliance on case studies, and focus on heterosexual development while largely ignoring homosexual development.

Complications from Demanding Parenting

Can lead to issues such as stool withholding, encopresis, and enuresis during the anal stage.

Positive Parenting Practices

Child-centered approaches to toilet training that can instill competence and self-control in children.

Freudian Theory

A psychological theory that emphasizes the role of unconscious processes and childhood experiences in shaping personality and behavior.

Erogenous Zone

Areas of the body that are sensitive to stimulation and can lead to sexual pleasure, shifting focus through different psychosexual stages.

Psychosexual Development

A theory proposed by Freud that outlines how personality develops through a series of stages focused on different erogenous zones.

Self-Control

The ability to manage one's impulses and behaviors, which can be influenced by successful resolution of the anal stage.

Sex-Role Identification

The process by which children adopt the roles and characteristics of the same-sex parent during the phallic stage.

Shame and Sexual Identity

Parental disapproval during the phallic stage can result in feelings of shame or a confused sexual identity in children.

Meaningful Relationships

The goal of the genital stage, where individuals seek to develop healthy and lasting connections with others.

Psychological Detachment

The process of gaining independence from parents, which occurs during the genital stage.

Empirical Research

Research based on observation and experimentation, which Freud's theory lacks due to its reliance on case studies.

Human Relationships

The complex structures and dynamics studied by researchers, often overlooked in Freud's theory.

Freud's psychoanalytic theory

The early relationships a child forms with their parents will influence their romantic relationships throughout the remainder of their life.

Erik Erikson

A noted psychologist and follower of Sigmund Freud who developed a theory of psychosocial development emphasizing social and environmental factors.

Psychosocial development

A theory that describes the impact of social experience across the lifespan.

Eight stages of psychosocial development

Stages that occur in a series between birth and death, each including a unique crisis that builds on the tasks of the previous stage.

Trust vs. Mistrust

The first stage of Erikson's theory, where a sense of trust in self and others is essential for the formation of a healthy identity.

Successful resolution of trust vs. mistrust

Requires a consistent caregiver who meets the child's needs and fosters a sense of trust.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The stage where children gain control over their bodies and develop a sense of independence and autonomy.

Initiative vs. Guilt

The stage where preschoolers explore their environment and try out different roles, adding initiative to autonomy.

Preschool

The stage where children's understanding of how the world works increases as they behave and act with purpose.

Imagination and exploration

Allow children to expand their potential during the initiative vs. guilt stage.

Risk-taking behaviors

Behaviors such as crossing the street or climbing a tree alone that increase during the initiative vs. guilt stage.

Development of mistrust

Can lead to feelings of suspicion, withdrawal, and a lack of confidence.

Secure environment

An environment provided by caregivers that allows children to explore and develop self-reliance.

Healthy self-concept

Developed when caregivers encourage independence and self-sufficiency.

Shame and doubt

Feelings that may arise in children if caregivers are highly restrictive or punitive.

Crisis in psychosocial development

A unique challenge at each stage that must be resolved for psychosocial growth.

Faith, optimism, and hope

Results from the formation of trust during the trust vs. mistrust stage.

Caregivers' role

To provide warmth, security, and regard to foster trust in infants.

Exploration in toddlerhood

Encouraged by caregivers to help children develop autonomy.

Purposeful behavior

Behavior exhibited by preschoolers as they learn and explore.

Environmental factors

Emphasized by Erikson as crucial to psychosocial development.

Predetermined stages

The belief shared by Freud and Erikson that personality develops in a series of stages.

Purpose

Purpose is achieved with a balance between individual initiative and a willingness to cooperate with others.

Parental Guidance

Parents and caregivers need to permit their toddlers to explore their environment within safe limits and boundaries.