Psych 101 final

cognitive psychology

scientific study of mental processes, including perception, attention, thought, language, etc.

cognitive neuroscience

the scientific study of the biological basis of mental processes, like perception, memory, and language, by examining brain activity associated with these processes using neuroimaging and other techniques

cognition

general term for mental activities involved in acquiring, retaining, and using knowledge

thinking

involves the manipulation of mental representation of info in order to draw inferences and conclusions

mental images

mental representation of objects or events that are not visual input

concepts

• mental category of objects or ideas typically based on the degree of shared properties

• allow us to link thoughts together to generalize from experience to make predictions and general way of conserving memory and reducing cognitive effort

prototype view of concepts

concepts are represented by an abstract “best example” or prototype that captures the central tendency of the category

exemplar theory

concepts are represented by collections of specific remembered examples

Fusiform Facial Area

activated when looking at a face or imagining one

parahippocampal place area

activated when looking at a place or imagining one

trial and error

a learning process where various methods are attempted until a successful solution is found.

algorithm

using a specific rule, procedure, or method that is guaranteed to produce the correct solution

affect-based

making decisions based on emotions or “gut feeling”

heuristics

following a general rule of thumb to reduce number of possible solutions

insight

• sudden realization of how a problem can be solved

• occurs when someone restructures their mental representation of a problem

functional fixedness

tendency to view objects as functioning only in their usual or customary way

mental set

tendency to persist in solving problems with solutions that have worked in the past

availability heuristic

probability of an event judged by how easily previous occurrences of that event can be recalled

representativeness heuristic

likelihood of an event is estimated by comparing how similar it is to the prototype of the event

language

structured system of communication using symbols, sounds, gestures, or written characters

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

language shapes how we perceive and categorize the world

Language acquisition device

idea proposed by Noam Chomsky that humans are born with an innate ability to learn language.

stages of language development

cooing - 3 months

babbling - 5 months

one word stage - 12 months

two word stage - 2 years

language spurt - 2.5 years

decline in ability to learn new language - around 7-8 years old

g factor

• a general intelligence factor that is responsible for a person’s overall performance on tests of mental ability

• idea developed by Charles Spearman

• Intelligence thought to be inherited from ones parents

intelligence

global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment

Alfred Binet

• devised series of tests to measure different mental abilities for French government focused on elementary mental abilities. intention was to help identify students who could benefit from extra help

• developed mental age

IQ (intelligence quotient)

general intelligence score derived by comparing an individual’s score with the scores of others in the same age group

Wechsler adult intelligence scale

IQ test that includes both a verbal and performance scale

Carroll Three-Stratum model

1st layer: broadest and represents general intelligence

2nd layer: broad abilities such as reading and writing

3rd layer: narrow abilities that fall under the category of each broad category

within-group differences

• variations in IQ scores among individuals within the same population group

• more variation in IQ in this group than between-group differences

between group differences

variations in average IQ scores when comparing different population groups

The Flynn Effect

the rise of IQ scores over time

mirror test

• measures self-awareness in animals

• developed by Gordon Gallup Jr. in 1970

collective intelligence

many species of animals live life in large groups and sometimes the collective can exhibit behavior not seen in the individual

decentralized coordination

a process where individuals within a group work together without centralized control to achieve a common goal

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and respond to emotions. Ones own emotions and those of others.

numerical cognition

the ability to perceive, process, and manipulate numerical quantities

subitizing

immediate recognition of small quantities without counting

numerical discrimination

distinguishing between different quantities

ordinal understanding

comprehending that numbers follow a sequence

arithmetic operations

basic addition, subtraction, and other manipulations

abstract number concept

understanding numbers independent of physical properties

developmental trajectory for numerical cognition

• infants as young as 6 months - discriminate between quantities

• 3-4 years old - develop verbal counting principles

• 5-6 years old - develop understanding of cardinality and arithmetic

Where was AI created?

first discussed at the Dartmouth Conference in 1956

connectionism

a framework for understanding mental processes as networks of simple units, often artificial neural networks

Humans compared to AI

• Brain - a network of neurons

• mind - patterns of activations across a network

• learning - adjusting weights based on error and looking at patterns

motivation

the process that initiates guides and maintains goal-oriented behaviors

instinct theory

• proposes that behaviors are innate and universal within species

• motivations are unlearned

• examples: migration patterns

• limitations: doesn’t explain complex human motivations

Drive theory

• biological needs create internal states of tension

• behavior aims to reduce these drives and restore homeostasis

• example: hunger motivates eating, thirst motivates drinking

• limitations: doesn’t explain behaviors that increase arousal

incentive theory

• external stimuli pulls us towards certain behaviors

• we are motivated by anticipation of rewards

• emphasizes learning through reinforming

• example: studying hard for good grades

arousal theory

• people are motivated to maintain optimal level of arousal

• too little arousal: boredom → seek stimulation

• too much arousal: anxiety → seek relaxation

humanistic theory

• focuses on psychological growth and self-fulfillment

• emphasizes free will and personal choice

• views motivation as driven by desire for self-actualization

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

• lower needs must be met before the higher needs can be satisfied

• levels: safety, love/belonging, esteem, and self-actualization

self-actualization

realizing ones full potential and capabilities

self-determination theory

• focuses on intrinsic motivation and psychological needs

• three core needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness

achievement motivation theory

people motivated by need for achievement or fear of failure

Emotions vs moods

emotions: more intense, brief, and specific trigger, lead to action

moods: less intense, longer-lasting, often without clear cause, create background feelings

functions of emotions

• promote survival and adaption

• prepare the body for action

• guide decision-making

• communicate intentions to others

• facilitate social bonding

basic emotions

happiness, sadness, fear, disgust, anger, and surprise

facial expressions

• people across cultures recognize basic facial expressions

• they can influence emotional experience

James-Lange theory

• physical reactions occur first, emotions follow

• we feel emotions because of our bodily response

Cannon-Bard Theory

• emotion and physiological arousal occur simultaneously

• thalamus sends signals to both cortex and body