FUNDAMENTALS OF AGRI,FISHERY, ECO, AND ENVISCI

CONCEPT

Plant

any organism belonging to the Kingdom Plantae, typically lacking active locomotion or obvious nervous system or sensory organs and has photosynthetic ability

Crop

domesticated/cultivated plants grown for profit. It usually connotes a group or population of cultivated plants

Crop Science

It is concerned with the observation and classification of knowledge concerning economically cultivated crops and the establishment of verifiable principles regarding their growth and development for the purpose of deriving the optimum benefit from them

Agronomy

deals with the principles and practices of managing field crops and soils

Horticulture

deals with gardens and plants within an enclosure

Herbs

Small, non-woody plants with soft, green stems that usually die back after flowering. Examples include rice, wheat, and most vegetables

Vines

Plants with weak, elongated, climbing or trailing stems that cannot stand upright without support (e.g., pole beans, grapes).

Shrubs

Medium-sized woody plants with several stems growing from the base, typically shorter than trees (e.g., coffee, hibiscus)

Trees

Large, perennial, woody plants with a single main trunk and a well-defined crown (e.g., mango, coconut).

Annual

Plants that germinate, grow, flower, produce seeds, and die within one growing season or year (e.g., corn, peanut)

Biennials

Plants that require two growing seasons to complete their life cycle; first year for vegetative growth, second year for flowering and seed production (e.g., carrot, cabbage)

Perennials

Plants that live and produce for more than two years, going through repeated cycles of growth and reproduction (e.g., sugarcane, banana).

Sexual

Plants propagated by seeds formed through fertilization, resulting in genetic variation (e.g., rice, maize)

Asexual

Plants reproduced through vegetative plant parts such as cuttings, runners, tubers, rhizomes, or grafting, producing clones identical to the parent (e.g., sugarcane, potato)

Parasites

Plants that attach to other living plants and obtain nutrients directly from their host (e.g., dodder, mistletoe)

Epiphytes

Plants that grow on other plants for physical support but do not take nutrients from them; they absorb moisture and nutrients from air and rain (e.g., orchids, ferns)

Saprophytes

Plants or fungi that derive nourishment from decaying organic matter in soil (e.g., mushrooms)

Cereal/Grain Crops

Crops grown for their starchy seeds used as staple food sources rich in carbohydrates (e.g., rice, corn, wheat)

Legumes

Protein-rich crops that often fix atmospheric nitrogen through root nodules, improving soil fertility (e.g., mungbean, soybean)

Root Crops

Plants cultivated for their edible underground storage organs like roots, tubers, or corms (e.g., cassava, sweet potato, yam)

Fiber Crops

Grown for fibers used in making cloth, ropes, or sacks (e.g., cotton, abaca, jute)

Oil Crops

Crops grown for oil extracted from their seeds or fruits for cooking industrial, or biofuel purposes (e.g., coconut, sunflower).

Sugar Crops

Crops cultivated for high sugar content in their stem or root used in sweetener production (e.g., sugarcane, sugar beet).

Pasture/Forage Crops

Plants specifically grown to feed grazing livestock, either directly or as stored feed (e.g., napier grass, alfalfa).

Beverage Crops

Crops used in preparing stimulating or refreshing drinks (e.g., coffee, tea, cacao)

Spices, Condiments, Essences

Crops that enhance flavor, aroma, and color of food, including herbs and spices (e.g., ginger, chili, pepper).

Latex and Resins

Crops that yield latex, gum, or resin for industrial use (e.g., rubber tree, pine)

Medicinal and Poison Crops

Crops that provide pharmaceutical compounds or toxic substances used for medicine or pest control (e.g., aloe vera, tobacco)

Vegetables

Crops grown for their edible leaves, stems, roots, or immature fruits used as part of the human diet (e.g., cabbage, tomato)

Fruits

Perennial plants cultivated for their fleshy or dry edible fruits (e.g., mango, banana, citrus)

Ornamentals

Crops grown for decorative, landscaping, or aesthetic purposes (e.g., roses, orchids).

Green Manure

Crops (often legumes) grown and incorporated into the soil while still green to add organic matter and improve fertility.

Cover Crop

Crops grown mainly to protect the soil from erosion, conserve moisture, and suppress weeds (e.g., mungbean, ryegrass).

Companion Crop

Crops planted alongside a main crop to provide benefits like pest control, shade, or better pollination (e.g., maize with beans)

Trap Crop

Crops planted to lure pests away from the main crop, reducing damage (e.g., mustard as a trap crop for diamondback moth in cabbage)

Catch Crop

Fast-growing crops planted between main crops to utilize otherwise idle land and provide additional yield (e.g., mungbean after rice).

Soilage

Crops cut while still green and fed fresh to livestock, without storage (e.g., young sorghum or maize)

Silage

Crops preserved through controlled fermentation in silos, pits, or plastic bags to produce nutritious livestock feed during off-season.

plant cell

the basic unit of life in plants, have unique structures that allow them to perform photosynthesis, maintain rigid shape, and store large amounts of water and nutrients

Cell Wall

Rigid outer covering made of cellulose, provides structural support and protection

Plasma Membrane

Semi-permeable barrier regulating the movement of substances in and out

Nucleus

Control center, contains DNA and regulates growth, reproduction, and protein synthesis

Chloroplasts

Site of photosynthesis; contains chlorophyll pigments that capture sunlight

Mitochondria

Powerhouse of the cell, site of respiration where glucose is converted to ATP (energy)

Vacuole

Large central vacuole stores water, ions, and waste products; maintains turgor pressure

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Protein and lipid synthesis; rough ER has ribosomes, smooth ER doesn’t

Golgi Apparatus

Packaging and transporting proteins and other cellular materials

Cytoplasm

Fluid matrix where organelles are suspended

Taproot

Single thick root growing deep into the soil. Example: carrot, radish. Best for anchorage and accessing deep water

Fibrous Roots

Many fine roots spread in the upper soil. Example: rice, wheat. Best for preventing soil erosion and rapid nutrient absorption.

ROOT

Anchorage of plants in soil AND Absorption of water and nutrients

Stem

Provides mechanical support; conducts water and food

xylem

STEM; WATER AND MINERALS

phloem

STEM: SUGARS AND HORMONES

Leaves

Major site of photosynthesis; structure adapted with stomata for gas exchange

Flowers

Reproductive organs – stamen (male), pistil (female). Cross-pollination promotes genetic diversity

Fruits and Seeds

Results from fertilization; ensures species propagation and dispersal.

Photosynthesis

The process by which green plants convert light energy into chemical energy stored in glucose. Takes place in the chloroplast using chlorophyll pigments

Light reaction (in thylakoids)

Captures solar energy, splits water, produces ATP and NADPH

Dark reaction (Calvin Cycle in stroma)

Uses ATP and NADPH to fix CO₂ into sugars

C3 Plants

(rice, wheat): Efficient in cool, moist climates

C4 Plants

(corn, sugarcane): Minimize photorespiration, efficient in hot, sunny climates

CAM Plants

(pineapple, cactus): Open stomata at night, conserving water

Respiration

The process of breaking down glucose to release energy (ATP). Occurs in the mitochondria

Aerobic respiration

Requires oxygen; more efficient (36–38 ATP)

Anaerobic respiration (fermentation)

Without oxygen; less efficient (2 ATP), produces ethanol or lactic acid

Transpiration

The loss of water vapor from plants, mainly through stomata in leaves

Translocation

The movement of organic solutes (mainly sucrose) through the phloem

Assimilation

The conversion of absorbed nutrients into useful cellular components.

Meristematic tissue

plant tissue that actively dividing cells for growth

dermal tissue

protects the plantsg

ground tissue

plant tissue that fills the spaces and performs various functions

vascular tissue

plant tissue that transport materials

Plant growth

irreversible increase in size

development

refers to the progression of plants through life stages

Irritability

Perception of stimulus

Conduction

Transmission of stimulus

Response

Visible movement or change

Tropisms (directional)

Growth response toward/away from stimulus. Phototropism (light), Geotropism (gravity), Hydrotropism (water), Thigmotropism (touch)

Nastic movements (non-directional)

Independent of stimulus direction. Nyctinasty (leaf closing at night, e.g., prayer plant). Thigmonasty (Mimosa pudica folding upon touch)

Crop Adaptation

The ability of crops to adjust to specific climatic, edaphic (soil), and biotic conditions

phytohormones

Plant growth and development are regulated by

Auxin

Promotes cell elongation and apical dominance (main shoot suppresses lateral buds).

Gibberellic Acid

Stimulates stem elongation, seed germination, and flowering

Cytokinin

Promotes cell division (cytokinesis)

Ethylene

A gaseous hormone. Stimulates fruit ripening, leaf abscission, and senescence

Abscisic Acid

Stress hormone; induces stomatal closure during drought. Promotes seed dormancy

PLANT PROPAGATION

the process of multiplying plants by sexual or asexual means

Sexual Propagation

Uses seeds (result of fertilization)

Asexual Propagation

Produces clones (genetically identical plants)

Propagation by Apomictic Embryos

Seeds develop without fertilization (asexual seed formation). Example: Citrus, mango

Separation and Division

Separation of natural vegetative structures (bulbs, corms, tubers, rhizomes). Example: Garlic (cloves), Potato (tubers)

Cutting

Using a portion of stem, leaf, or root to grow a new plant. Example: Sugarcane (stem cuttings), Cassava

Layering

Inducing roots on a stem while still attached to the parent plant. Example: Jasmine, bougainvillea

Grafting

Joining two plant parts (rootstock + scion). Example: Mango, citrus

Budding

Insertion of a single bud into rootstock. Example: Rose, rubber

Inarching

Both scion and stock remain rooted until union forms. Example: Mango, jackfruit

Tissue Culture Techniques

Micropropagation under sterile lab conditions. Useful for mass production of disease-free planting materials. Example: Bananas, orchids, abaca

soil texture

Proportion of sand, silt, clay. Affects water retention, aeration, and fertility

soil structure

Aggregation of soil particles influences drainage and root penetration