Age of Revolutions Test

What were the major contributions of Copernicus, Galileo, Newton, and Kepler?

• Copernicus: Heliocentric theory.

• Galileo: Telescope observations, supported heliocentrism.

• Newton: Laws of motion, universal gravitation.

• Kepler: Laws of planetary motion (elliptical orbits).

How did the Enlightenment challenge traditional political and religious beliefs?

Emphasized reason, individualism, and questioned absolute authority and traditional religious beliefs.

What were the main grievances of the American colonists against British rule?

Taxation without representation, military presence, and restrictions on colonial autonomy.

Why was the Estates-General of 1789 ineffective in addressing France’s financial crisis?

Unequal representation, disagreements on voting, and failure to resolve France's financial crisis.

What were the causes and effects of the Reign of Terror?

Causes: Fear of revolution's collapse.
Effects: Mass executions, political instability, Robespierre's downfall.

How did Napoleon come to power, and what were his major accomplishments?

Rose via military success, became Emperor, created the Napoleonic Code, expanded French Empire.

What were the main reasons for Haiti’s successful revolution?

Leadership of Toussaint Louverture, slavery conditions, influence of French Revolution, weakened French.

How did the Napoleonic Wars contribute to the rise of nationalism in Europe?

• Spread revolutionary ideals, sparked nationalist movements in Europe.

• Challenges for Latin American Nations:

What challenges did newly independent Latin American nations face?

Political instability, economic hardship, and power struggles.

What were the differences between the unification of Italy and Germany?

Italy: Led by Cavour and Garibaldi, fragmented process.
Germany: Led by Bismarck, through wars and diplomacy.

Heliocentric Theory:

The idea, proposed by Copernicus, that the Sun is at the center of the solar system, with Earth and other planets orbiting around it.

Scientific Method:

A systematic approach to investigation involving observation, experimentation, hypothesis testing, and the development of theories to explain natural phenomena.

Natural Rights:

The belief, advanced by philosophers like John Locke, that all individuals are born with certain inalienable rights, such as life, liberty, and property.

Social Contract:

• The theory, popularized by Rousseau, that individuals agree to form a society and abide by its rules in exchange for protection and the benefits of living in a community.

Separation of Powers:

A principle of government, proposed by Montesquieu, that divides power into three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial, to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful.

Taxation without Representation:

A slogan used by American colonists to protest being taxed by Britain without having a say in the British Parliament, which led to the American Revolution.

Estates System:

The social hierarchy in pre-revolutionary France, divided into three estates: the clergy (First Estate), the nobility (Second Estate), and commoners (Third Estate).

Reign of Terror:

A period during the French Revolution (1793-1794) led by the Jacobins, marked by mass executions of perceived enemies of the revolution, including King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette.

Napoleonic Code:

A comprehensive set of laws established by Napoleon in 1804, which became the foundation of civil law in many countries, emphasizing equality before the law, property rights, and individual freedoms.

Nationalism:

A strong sense of pride and loyalty to one’s nation, often leading to the desire for independence, self-governance, and the unification of people with shared culture, language, and history.

Congress of Vienna:

A meeting in 1814-1815 between European powers to reorganize Europe after Napoleon’s defeat, aiming to restore monarchies, prevent future wars, and maintain a balance of power.

Simón Bolívar:

A South American revolutionary leader who helped many countries, including Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador, gain independence from Spanish rule in the early 19th century.

Haitian Revolution:

A successful slave revolt (1791-1804) in Haiti that led to the establishment of the first independent black republic, inspired by Enlightenment ideals and the French Revolution.

Unification of Italy/Germany:

Italy: The process of combining various independent states into a single nation, led by figures like Garibaldi and Cavour in the 19th century.
Germany: The unification of German states under Prussian leadership, primarily through military wars and diplomacy, led by Otto von Bismarck in the 19th century.

Church’s Response:

The Church opposed scientific discoveries that contradicted religious teachings, especially the heliocentric theory.

Locke:

Believed in natural rights (life, liberty, property).

Montesquieu

Advocated for separation of powers in government.

Rousseau:

Believed in the social contract and the general will.

Hobbes

Argued for absolute monarchy for order and control.

Influence on Revolutions

Enlightenment ideas inspired revolutions, pushing for democracy, individual rights, and equality.

Taxation without Representation

Colonists were taxed by Britain without a say in Parliament.

British Policies:

Unfair taxes and trade restrictions (e.g., Stamp Act, Townshend Acts).

Seven Years' War Impact:

War debts led to higher taxes for colonists.

Influence of Enlightenment Ideas:

Inspired by Locke’s ideas of natural rights and democracy.

Declaration of Independence

Document declaring American colonies' independence from Britain.

Democratic Republic:

• Establishment of a government based on democratic principles.

U.S. Constitution:

A new framework of government emphasizing separation of powers and individual rights.

Social Inequality:

the Third Estate (commoners) had few rights, while the clergy and nobility had privileges.

Financial Crisis

Debt from wars, especially aiding the American Revolution.

Estates-General

A meeting that failed to address the financial crisis.

Tennis Court Oath

The Third Estate swore to create a new constitution.

Storming of the Bastille

People stormed the prison, marking the start of the revolution.

Reign of Terror

Radical phase of revolution, led by Robespierre, with mass executions.

Execution of Louis XVI:

King Louis XVI was executed, ending the monarchy.

Role of Nationalism:

Fueled by the desire for equality and independence from monarchial rule.

Rise and Fall of Napoleon

Rose to power after revolution, became emperor, expanded France, but was eventually defeated.

Impact of Napoleonic Wars

Spread revolutionary ideas across Europe, redrew European borders, and led to the rise of nationalism.

Role of Toussaint Louverture

Leader of the revolution who fought for Haitian independence.

First Successful Slave Revolt

Enslaved people overthrew French rule, creating the first independent black republic.

European and American Response:

Europeans were concerned about the spread of slave revolts, while the U.S. was conflicted about recognizing Haiti.

Haiti’s Long-term Economic Challenges

Post-independence, Haiti faced economic struggles due to debt, lack of infrastructure, and isolation from global markets.

Napoleon’s Impact on Spain

Napoleon’s invasion of Spain weakened colonial control.

Creole Dissatisfaction

Creoles (colonial elites) were unhappy with Spanish rule and wanted more control.

José de San Martín

Key leader in South American independence movements.

Miguel Hidalgo

Led the Mexican independence movement.

Social Divisions:

Class struggles, with indigenous and African populations excluded.

European Resistance

Spain and Portugal tried to maintain control over their colonies.

Nationalism in Europe Post-Napoleon:

Napoleon's defeat led to a rise in national pride and the desire for unified nations.

Differences in Unification Methods

• Italy: Unification led by leaders like Cavour and Garibaldi, combining diplomacy and military action.

• Germany: Led by Bismarck, who used war and diplomacy to unite the German states under Prussian leadership.