HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS Study Set

Mere Exposure Effect

Attraction increases with familiarity and frequency

Moreland & Beach (1992)

Did a study testing the mere exposure effect; there was a positive correlation between the number of times an average looking woman visited a class and how much she started being liked by participants

Cultural Psychology

Argues that culture affects whom we find attractive and how we form relationships

Passionate Love

Making this the foundation of a long-term relationship is primarily a Western phenomenon.

Arranged Marriages

Emphasize learning to love one's spouse over time.

PROCEDURES: Buss (1989)

Questionnaires were used to collect data from over 10,000 men and women from 37 different cultures, to explore which things men and women value most in a potential mate

FINDINGS: Buss (1989)

1) Males valued physical attractiveness and relative youth in potential mates more than did females.

2) Males valued chastity in potential mates more than women did.

3) Females valued the financial capacity of potential mates more than did males.

4) Females valued the characteristics of ambition and industriousness in a potential mate to a greater extent than males did.

Similarity-Attraction Model

Attraction is stronger towards individuals who are more similar to one's self than dissimilar.

AIM: Markey and Markey (2007)

To investigate the extent to which similarity is a factor in the way people choose a partner

FINIDNGS: Markey and Markey (2007)

Across two studies involving heterosexual couples who had been together for a year, they found that people want partners who are more like themselves. They also found that the most loving and harmonious relationships were among couples who were similar in some characteristics but not all.

attachment

Affection, fondness, or sympathy for someone or something

Internal Working Model

Schema formed from primary attachment relationships (such as a mother or caregiver) that may influence future attachments.

Bowlby's Attachment Theory

Attachment patterns tend to be replicated in future relationships

Hazan and Shaver (1987)

Found there was a positive correlation between attachment type and later love relationship experiences

Halo Effect

Positive impressions in one area influence others (example: in relationships, a person's beauty positively influences our judgment of other, unrelated qualities)

Evolutionary Psychology

Assumes behavior is genetically inherited, motivated by survival and the desire to pass down one's own genes

Natural Selection

Members of a species who have characteristics better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce - thus, passing on these beneficial traits to the next generation

Adaptations

Characteristics developed over many generations, through natural selection, that make a species more competitive in its environment, increasing its chances of survival

Pheromones

Chemicals released into the environment that affect behavior in the same species.

Primer Pheromones

Cause long-term physiological changes in animals

Signaling Pheromones

Cause rapid behavioral responses, like mating

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)

A group of genes that enable immune system pathogen recognition.

MHC and attraction

Greater diversity of MHC types strengthens a child's immune system due to increased recognition of more pathogens. Therefore, if humans were able to detect MHC types, potential mates with a different type would be more attractive

Human Pheromones

It is debated whether these exist, and whether the ability to sense or smell MHC "type" (if that ability exists) would be considered an example of one

AIM: Wedekind (1995)

To determine whether one's MHC would affect mate choice.

PROCEDURES: Wedekind (1995)

49 female and 44 male students were typed for their MHC. The males were then asked to wear the same t-shirt for two nights and not use anything scented. No tobacco, alcohol, spicy food or sex was to be eaten/done. The women then had to smell 7 tshirts in the week following their menstrual cycles and rank them (1-10) according to intensity and according to pleasantness / sexiness

FINDINGS: Wedekind (1995)

Women in the study preferred the smell of t-shirts worn by men with dissimilar MHC, unless the women were taking oral contraceptives (in which case the preference was reversed).

CONCLUSION: Wedekind 1995

The dissimilar immune system genes would theoretically produce offspring better able to fend off more illnesses than if the MHC genes matched. This result suggests MHC may influence mater choice and could provide support for an evolutionary argument for mate selection in humans

Hormones

Chemical messengers released into the bloodstream by glands of the endrocrine system.

Hormonal Effects

Longer-lasting than neurotransmitters but only affect target cells, and are slower to take effect

Testosterone

While associated with higher levels of aggression and male-male competition, this hormone can also promote prosocial behaviors and efforts to increase one's social standing

AIM: Ronay and von Hippel (2010)

To investigate the hypothesis that physical risk-taking by young men increases in the presence of an attractive female; and that increased risk-taking in the presence of an attractive woman might be induced by elevated testosterone

PROCEDURES: Ronay and von Hippel (2010)

96 young adult male skateboarders were recruited in skateboard parks in Australia (21.58 mean age) - 43 participants were assigned to a male experimenter condition and 53 were assigned to a female experimenter condition. Skateboarders were asked to choose one easy trick and one difficult trick they had not yet mastered which they attempted 10 times each while being videotaped by the male or female experimenter (blind to the hypothesis). Saliva samples were collected at the conclusion of the experiment to monitor testosterone levels.

FINDINGS: Ronay and von Hippel (2010)

Participants took greater risks on the difficult tricks in the presence of the female experimenter and testosterone levels were significantly higher among men who skateboarded in front of the female experimenter.

CONCLUSION: Ronay and von Hippel (2010)

Young men take greater physical risks when in the presence of an attractive woman and increases in circulating testosterone partially explain this effect

Oxytocin

A hormone that promotes love, trust, and social bonding, along with calming effects. Also plays a key role in mother-child attachment.

AIM: Ditzen et al. (2009)

Aim: To investigate the effects of oxytocin on couples communication and cortisol levels

PROCEDURE: Ditzen et al. (2009)

Method: Lab experiment. 47 heterosexual couples either received oxytocin or a placebo intranasally. They were then instructed engaged in a discussion about a topic that would likely lead to conflict. The conflict session was videotaped and coded for verbal and nonverbal interaction behavior, and salivary cortisol was repeatedly measured during the experiment.

Cortisol

Stress hormone released by the adrenal cortex, although it also helps maintain constant blood pressure and blood sugar levels, and helps to reduce inflammation

FINDINGS: Ditzen et al; (2009)

Oxytocin significantly increased positive communication behavior in relation to negative behavior during the couple conflict discussion and significantly reduced salivary cortisol levels after the conflict compared with placebo.

CONCLUSION: Ditzen et al (2009)

These results are in line with animal studies indicating that central oxytocin facilitates approach and pair bonding behavior. The findings imply an involvement of oxytocin in couple interaction and close relationships in humans.

neurons

Nerve cells - the basic building block of the nervous system; there are about 86 billion of them in the human brain alone

neurotransmission

The process of transferring information from one neuron to another at a synapse by use of chemical messages and electrical signals

action potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon (which is the long threadlike part of a neuron along which impulses are conducted from the cell body to other cells)

neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that (when released from vesicles), cross the synaptic gaps between neurons, transmitting information from one neuron to the next

examples of neurotransmitters

Acetylcholine, Dopamine, Serotonin, Norepinephrine, GABA, Glutamate

synapse

The junction gap between the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the postsynaptic neuron

presynaptic neuron

Neuron that sends the signal

postsynaptic neuron

Neuron that receives the signal

excitatory neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that increase the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential (by binding to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron), promoting communication between nerve cells (key examples include glutamate, acetylcholine, serotonin and dopamine)

inhibitory neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that reduce the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential (by linking to ion channels that allow negatively charged ions to enter the cell), thereby decreasing neural activity (key examples include GABA and glycine)

dopamine

An excitatory neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention and learning, and the brain's pleasure and reward system

serotonin

An inhibitory neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep and arousal. Undersupply is linked to depression.

agonists

Molecules that bind to a receptor and activate a response (increasing or decreasing the activity of that cell accordingly)

endogenous

Growing or originating from within an organism (Example: Neurotransmitters, Hormones, etc.)

endogenous agonists

Neurotransmitters - because they are biologically already part of the nervous system and they bind to their matching receptor sites (Example: Acetylcholine attaches to ACh receptor sites on the postsynaptic neuron)

antagonists

Molecules that bind to a receptor but do not activate it; instead, they block the binding of agonists and prevent the receptor from being activated (Example: Scopolamine blocks acetylcholine receptor sites)

exogenous

Something that comes from an external source, not from within the body or cell (Example: Medicine or drugs)

reuptake

Process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed back into the synaptic vesicles of a neuron

hormones

Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues (but some of them act as neurotransmitters within the brain)

examples of hormones

Cortisol, Oxytocin, Testosterone, Melatonin

endocrine system

The body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

internal attribution

Dispositional: A person’s traits, personality or abilities are seen as the cause of their behavior (seen as intentional or within their control)

external attribution

Situational: A person’s environment, luck / timing, or the actions of other people are seen as the cause of their behavior (seen as accidental / unintentional and outside of their control)

Actor-Observer Bias

People often attribute their own actions to external, situational factors while attributing others’ actions to internal, dispositional factors

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overestimate the role of internal (dispositional) factors while explaining other people’s behavior, and underestimating the role of external (situational) factors

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to attribute one’s successes to internal (dispositional) factors and one’s failures to external (situational) factors

Relationship-enhancing pattern of communication

Attributing their partner’s successes to internal (dispositional) factors and their failures to external (situational) factors

Distress-maintaining pattern of communication

Attributing their partner’s successes to external (situational) factors and their failures to internal (dispositional) factors

Prospective study

Observational (researchers observe and collect data without intervening or manipulating the participants) and longitudinal (follows participants over an extended period to track changes over time)

AIM: Bradbury and Fincham (1990)

To explore the connection between communication patterns and marital satisfaction

PARTICIPANTS: Bradbury and Fincham (1990)

47 couples who were married, living together and had not been in marriage counseling, who were recruited to the study through local advertisements; as a sample, they averaged 8.5 years of marriage

PROCEDURES: Bradbury and Fincham (1990)

Couples filled out a questionnaire (in individual sessions) to determine marital satisfaction and to identify a common problem and a problem they thought their partner didn’t see as a problem. They asked each partner about the cause of the problem and who was responsible for it. Then, the couple was brought together to discuss (in a laboratory setting, while being videotaped) a possible solution to the common problem, for 15 minutes. 3 trained researchers each independently coded the videotape to identify communication patterns.

FINDINGS: Bradbury and Fincham (1990)

Couples that reported lower levels of marital satisfaction had more frequent distress maintaining communication patterns (seeing the partner as behaving intentionally and selfishly). The interaction between such couples was rated as more hostile and rejecting of the partner's positive approaches (making external attributions).

CONCLUSION: Bradbury and Fincham (1990)

This may indicate that the kinds of attributions made about their partner, and the communicatIon pattern, influence the behavior of the couple (rather than the behaviors of the couple influencing the attributions and communication patterns)

disclosure

The process of sharing information, thoughts or feelings with other people

Social Penetration Theory

Altman and Taylor argue there are 4 different levels of disclosure that proceed through stages: Orientation (small talk, simple information, low risk), Exploratory (reveal some opinions and feelings, but still relatively safe), Affective (beginning to share private / personal information with increasing vulnerability and intimacy), and Stable (strong trust; can share openly and honestly)

FINDINGS: Collins and Miller (1994)

People who disclose information about themselves are ore liked than those who don’t; people tend to disclose more personal information to those they like; if people disclose information to someone, they tend to like that person more

bidirectional ambiguity

When there are correlations, but we cannot clearly determine which variable is causing the other (Example: Does a good relationship lead to more disclosure, or does more disclosure lead to a better relationship?)

The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse

Gottman’s research on couples identifies communication patterns that can threaten a relationship: criticism, contempt, defensiveness, stonewalling (and he later added belligerence)

contempt

Attacking your partner’s character with insult or abuse; treating them as inferior

stonewalling

Withdrawing from the relationship to avoid conflict

switchtracking

A conversational derailment when one person switches the topic of the conversation to avoid conflict, discomfort or perceive blame

AIM: Carerre and Gottman (1999)

To determine whether psychologists could accurately predict if a couple in marriage counseling would end up divorced, after only a few minutes of conversation

PARTICIPANTS: Carrere and Gottman (1999)

In this prospective study, 124 newlywed couples were recruited using a purposive sampling method - meaning that sampling included an attempt to stratify the sample; couples reflected a range of economic and ethnic demographics in the Seattle area.

PROCEDURES: Carrrere and Gottman (1999)

Each couple completed a survey (separately) and then discussed the results with a researcher in order to identify one or two problematic issues in their relationship. These issues were then used as the basis for a 15-minute discussion which was video recorded and then coded using the SPAFF system (positive, negative and neutral affects). Couples were then checked once a year for six years to find out if they were still married.

FINDINGS: Carrere and Gottman (1999)

SPAFF scores from the first 3 minutes of the originally recorded discussion were compared for husbands and wives who were still married after six years and those who were not, focusing on the differential between negative and positive affects in communication: Still married husbands (+52.2), Divorced husbands (-13.8), Still married wives (+45.9), Divorced wives (-20.9)

CONCLUSION: Carrere and Gottman (1999)

Communication styles play a key role in the maintenance or dissolution of a relationship, since they may lead to a vicious circle. Example: The husband’s stonewalling makes the wife more dissatisfied; her negative affect increases; in turn, this makes her husband feel less satisfied with the relationship, increasing his withdrawal from intimacy.

Diffuse Physiological Arousal (flooding)

Becoming overly aroused with strong emotions, which triggers our fight or flight response to a perceived threat, with a rapid heartbeat, shallow breath, possibly sweaty palms, possibly with yelling or stonewalling as part of the response. This makes active listening and calm conversation all but impossible until we have calmed down.

Social Exchange Theory

Argues that human interactions (including relationships) are transactions that aim to maximize one's benefits and minimize one's costs; when the costs become too great relative to the benefits for a partner, they may end the relationship

Equity Theory

Argues the perception of fairness is what determines whether a relationship will be maintained. If one partner feels they are putting in significantly more effort and receiving less in return than their partner, they may experience distress and seek to restore balance through many possible behaviors.

infidelity

Equity Theory suggests cheating may be a way for an under-benefitted partner (putting more into the relationship than their partner and getting less out of it) to restore equity because by cheating, the partner now “owes” the other one loyalty due to the cheating; however, evolutionary psychologists argue for biological origins (men have a drive to procreate and can do so rather easily while women have only one egg a month and must be pickier about whom they mate with)

Fatal Attraction Theory

Argues that what initially attracted us to our partner may eventually be the reason the relationship ends. Felmlee found 3 common patterns: Fun to foolish; Strong to domineering; Spontaneous to unpredictable.

Sampling bias

Regarding relationships, the majority of studies come from 3 populations that introduce biases: college students (difficult to generalize to other age groups), individualistic cultures (influencing attribution style and more), couples who have sought out therapy to save a troubled marriage (those who do not seek therapy are underrepresented)

Peak-end rule

When a relationship is in danger, memory distortion may occur that focuses on very bad events and the most recent behavior (which tends to be negative), rather than the whole of the relationship