PSYCH exam 2

Encoding

Transforming Perceptions Into Memories

Storage

Maintaining Memories Over Time

Retrival

Bringing Memories to Mind

Memory

the ability to store and retrieve information over time.

Semantic encoding

is the process of relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stored in memory

Visual imagery encoding

the process of storing new information by converting it into mental pictures.

Organizational encoding

the process of categorizing information according to the relationships among a series of items.

Sensory memory

is a type of storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less.

Iconic memory

a fast-decaying store of visual information.

Echoic memory

a fast-decaying store of auditory information.

Short term memory

a type of storage that holds nonsensory information for more than a few seconds but less than a minute.

Rehearsal

the process of keeping information in short-term memory by mentally repeating it.

Chunking

combining small pieces of information into larger clusters or chunks that are more easily held in short-term memory.

Working memory

active maintenance of information in short-term storage

Long term memory

a type of storage that holds information for hours, days, weeks, or years.

Anterograde amnesia

which is the inability to transfer new information from the short-term store into the long-term store.

Retrograde amnesia

is the inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an injury or surgery.

Consolidation

the process by which memories become stable in the brain

Reconsolidation

memories can become vulnerable to disruption when they are recalled, thus requiring them to be consolidated again.

Long term potential

a process whereby communication across the synapse between neurons strengthens the connection, making further communication easier.

Retrieval cue

external information that is associated with stored information and helps bring it to mind.

Encoding specificity principal

states that a retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps re-create the specific way in which information was initially encoded

State dependent retrieval

the process whereby information tends to be better recalled when the person is in the same state during encoding and retrieval.

Transfer appropriate processing

the idea that memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when the encoding and retrieval contexts of the situations match

Retrieval induced forgetting

a process by which retrieving an item from long-term memory impairs subsequent recall of related items

Explicit memory

when people consciously or intentionally retrieve past experiences.

Implicit memory

past experiences influence later behavior and performance, even without an effort to remember them or an awareness of the recollection

Procedural memory

the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or “knowing how” to do things.

Priming

an enhanced ability to think of a stimulus, such as a word or object, as a result of a recent exposure to the stimulus during an earlier study task

Semantic memory

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world.

Episodic memory

which is the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

Transience

forgetting what occurs with the passage of time.

Retroactive interference

situations in which later learning impairs memory for information acquired earlier

Proactive interference

situations in which earlier learning impairs memory for information acquired later

Absent mindedness

a lapse in attention that results in memory failure.

Prospective memory

remembering to do things in the future

Blocking

a failure to retrieve information that is available in memory even though you are trying to produce it.

Memory misattribution

assigning a recollection or an idea to the wrong source

Source memory

recall of when, where, and how information was acquired

Suggestibility

tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections.

Bias

the distorting influences of present knowledge, beliefs, and feelings on recollection of previous experiences

Persistence

the intrusive recollection of events that we wish we could forget.

Flashbulb memories

detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events

Learning

the acquisition, from experience, of new knowledge, skills, or responses that result in a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner.

Habituation

a general process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in a gradual reduction in responding

Sensitization

a simple form of learning that occurs when presentation of a stimulus leads to an increased response to a later stimulus.

Classical conditioning

a type of learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus produces a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally produces a response

Unconditioned stimulus

something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism

Unconditioned response

a reflexive reaction that is reliably produced by an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned stimulus

previously neutral stimulus that produces a reliable response in an organism after being paired with a US

Conditioned response

a reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus.

Second-order conditioning

type of learning whereby a CS is paired with a stimulus that became associated with the US in an earlier procedure,

Acquisition

the phase of classical conditioning when the CS and the US are presented together.

Extinction

the gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US.

Spontaneous recovery

the tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period.

Generalization

the CR is observed even though the CS is slightly different from the CS used during acquisition.

Discrimination

the capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli.

Biological preparedness

a propensity for learning particular kinds of associations over others

Operant conditioning

a type of learning in which the consequences of an organism’s behavior determine whether it will repeat that behavior in the future

Law of effect

behaviors that are followed by a “satisfying state of affairs” tend to be repeated, whereas those that produce an “unpleasant state of affairs” are less likely to be repeated.

Operant behavior

behavior that an organism performs that has some impact on the environment.

Reinforcer

any stimulus or event that increases the likelihood of the behavior that led to it,

Punisher

any stimulus or event that decreases the likelihood of the behavior that led to it.

Fixed interval schedule

reinforcers are presented at fixed time periods, provided that the appropriate response is made.

Variable interval schedule

behavior is reinforced on the basis of an average time that has expired since the last reinforcement

Fixed ratio schedule

reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made.

Variable ratio schedule

the delivery of reinforcement is based on a particular average number of responses.

Intermittent reinforcement

whereby only some of the responses made are followed by reinforcement

Intermittent reinforcement effects

the fact that operant behaviors that are maintained under intermittent reinforcement schedules resist extinction better than those maintained under continuous reinforcement

Shaping

learning that results from the reinforcement of successive steps to a final desired behavior.

Latent learning

is a process in which something is learned, but it is not manifested as a behavioral change until sometime in the future

Cognitive map

a mental representation of the physical features of the environment.

Observational learning

process in which an organism learns by watching the actions of others.

Implicit learning

learning that takes place largely independent of awareness of both the process and the products of information acquisition.

Emotion

a temporary state that includes unique subjective experiences and physiological activity, and that prepares people for action.

Appraisal

conscious or unconscious evaluations and interpretations of the emotion-relevant aspects of a stimulus or event

Action tendencies

are a readiness to engage in a specific set of emotion-relevant behaviors

James Lange theory

feelings are simply the perception of one’s own physiological responses to a stimulus.

Two factor theory

stimuli trigger a general state of physiological arousal, which is then interpreted as a specific emotion.

Binge ED

eating disorder characterized by recurrent and uncontrolled episodes of consuming a large number of calories in a short time.

Bulimia

an eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by compensatory behavior

Anorexia

eating disorder characterized by an intense fear of being overweight and a severe restriction of food intake.

Evolutionary mismatch

traits that were adaptive in an ancestral environment may be maladaptive in a modern environment

Metabolism

the rate at which the body uses energy.

Intrinsic motivation

a motivation to take actions that are themselves rewarding.

Extrinsic motivation

a motivation to take actions that lead to reward.

Conscious motivation

motivations of which people are aware

UnConscious motivation

motivations of which people are not aware

Need for achievement

the motivation to solve worthwhile problems

Approach motivation

the motivation to experience positive outcomes

Avoidance motivation

the motivation to avoid experiencing negative outcomes.

Loss aversion

the tendency to care more about avoiding losses than about achieving equal-size gains

Terror management theory

theory that suggests that people respond to knowledge of their own mortality by developing a cultural worldview.

Language

system for communicating with others using signals that are combined according to rules of grammar and that convey meaning.

Grammar

set of rules that specify how the units of language can be combined to produce meaningful messages.

Phonemes

The smallest units of sound that are recognizable as speech rather than as random noise

Phonological rules

indicate how phonemes can be combined to produce speech sounds.

Morphemes

the smallest meaningful units of language

Morphological rules

indicate how morphemes can be combined to form words.

Syntactic rules

indicate how words can be combined to form phrases and sentences.