Fundamentals of Psychological Research

A set of vocabulary flashcards covering core concepts from the lecture notes on research methods, statistics, ethics, and design in psychology.

Psychology

The scientific study of mental processes and behavior.

Mental Processes

The internal 'thinking' parts of the brain—what happens inside our heads that we can't observe directly.

Behavior

What we do and how we act; observable actions.

Descriptive Research

Methods that describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon without testing causal relationships.

Correlational Research

Studies that examine relationships between variables as they naturally occur, without manipulation.

Experimental Method

A research approach that manipulates an independent variable to observe its effect on a dependent variable, aiming to establish causality.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable deliberately changed or manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable measured to assess the effect of the IV.

Confounding Variable

An uncontrolled variable that can influence the DV and bias results.

Operational Definition

A precise description of how a variable will be measured or manipulated so it can be observed and replicated.

Experimental Group

The group exposed to the independent variable in an experiment.

Control Group

The group not exposed to the IV, used as a baseline for comparison.

Random Assignment

Randomly assigning participants to groups to minimize preexisting differences.

Placebo Effect

Improvement due to a participant's belief in a treatment, not the treatment itself.

Placebo Condition

A control condition where participants receive an inert treatment for comparison.

Experimenter Bias

The researcher's expectations influencing how the study is conducted or interpreted.

Single-Blind Study

Participants do not know which condition they are in, but researchers do.

Double-Blind Study

Neither participants nor researchers know which participants are in which group.

Sample

A subset of individuals selected from a population for study.

Population

The entire group about which researchers want to generalize.

Representative Sample

A sample that reflects the population's key characteristics and demographics.

Stratified Sampling

Dividing the population into strata and sampling from each to ensure representation.

Convenience Sampling

Selecting participants based on ease of access, which can bias results.

Random Sample

A sample where every population member has an equal chance of being selected.

Sample Bias

When the sample is not representative of the population, biasing results.

Generalizability

The extent to which findings from a sample apply to the broader population.

Statistics

Tools used to organize, describe, and infer from data in psychology.

Descriptive Statistics

Numerical measures that summarize and describe a dataset.

Inferential Statistics

Methods used to draw conclusions about a population from sample data.

Mean

The average value of a data set.

Median

The middle value of a data set when ordered.

Mode

The most frequently occurring value in a data set.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set.

Standard Deviation

A measure of how spread out scores are around the mean.

Normal Curve (Bell Curve)

A symmetric distribution where most scores cluster near the mean.

Positive Skew

A distribution with a tail extending to the right; more data on the left.

Negative Skew

A distribution with a tail extending to the left; more data on the right.

Regression to the Mean

Extreme scores tend to move toward the average on subsequent measurements.

Percentile Rank

The percentage of scores in a distribution at or below a given value.

Bimodal Distribution

A distribution with two distinct peaks or modes.

Statistical Significance

The likelihood that observed results are not due to chance, often shown by a p-value.

p-value

Probability of obtaining results as extreme as observed if the null hypothesis is true; commonly <0.05 for significance.

Effect Size

The magnitude of a difference or relationship, indicating practical significance.

Meta-Analysis

Statistical analysis combining results from multiple studies on the same topic.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee that reviews and approves research proposals to protect participants.

Informed Consent

Voluntary agreement to participate after being informed about purpose, procedures, risks, and rights.

Informed Assent

Consent-like process for individuals (e.g., children) who cannot give full informed consent.

Confidentiality

Keeping participants' identities and data confidential and secure.

Deception

Misleading participants about a study's true purpose or procedures, justified only when necessary.

Confederates

People in on the study who behave as participants but are aware of the true purpose.

Debriefing

Providing participants with a full explanation of the study after participation.

Milgram Experiment

An obedience study exploring how people follow authority, often raised ethical concerns.

Little Albert

An early conditioning study showing fear of a white rat; highlighted ethics of consent and debriefing.

Genie Case

Case study of severe neglect illustrating language development and privacy considerations.

Tuskegee Syphilis Study

Historical unethical study underscoring the importance of informed consent and ethical oversight.

Wording Effect

How question wording can bias respondents' answers.

Social Desirability Bias

Tendency to respond in a socially acceptable way rather than truthfully.

Naturalistic Observation

Watching behavior in real-world settings without intervention.

Case Study

In-depth examination of a single individual, group, or phenomenon.

Reliability

Consistency of a measure across time and items.

Validity

The extent to which a measure accurately assesses what it intends to measure.

Correlation Coefficient (r)

A statistic from -1 to +1 indicating the strength and direction of a linear relationship.

Scatterplot

A graph plotting pairs of scores to visualize relationships.

Third Variable Problem

A lurking variable may account for an observed association between two variables.

Replication

Repeating a study to verify findings and establish reliability.