AQA Psychology - Research Methods

What is a laboratory experiment?

an experiment conducted in a controlled environment

What are 2 benefits of a laboratory experiment?

High Internal Validity and Easy Replication

What is Replicability?

The idea that for an experiment too support an argument, it must be able to be repeated and yield the same result

What is the empirical method?

The use of objective observation to test or refine a theory.

Give two disadvantages of Laboratory Experiments

Low Ecological Validity + Demand Characteristics

What is a Field Experiment?

An experiment that takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV

Give two advantages of a Field Experiment?

High Ecological Validity + Lack Of Demand Characteristics

Give two disadvantages of a Field Experiment?

Low Internal Validity + Harder to Replicate

What is a Natural Experiment?

an unmanipulated change in environmental conditions that the experimenter just observes.

Give two advantages of a Natural Experiment

High Ecological Validity + Allows research where it can't be manipulated

Give two disadvantages of Natural Experiments

Lack of Causal Relationships + Lack of Generalisability

What is a Quasi Experiment?

Designed to answer cause and effect questions; major difference is that participants are not randomly assigned

Give two advantages of a quasi experiment

Can be carried out in a lab + Allows comparison between types of people

Give two disadvantages of quasi experiments

If carried out in a lab, less ecologically valid + Lack of Random Allocation

What is an independent variable?

The variable that is manipulated by the researcher

What is a dependent variable?

The variable that is measured

What is an extraneous variable?

Something that may impact the experiment but can be controlled for by the experimenter

What is a confounding variable?

in an experiment, a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect

What is a null hypothesis?

When there is no difference between the two populations being studied.

What is a directional hypothesis?

Predicts the direction specifically of the effect

What is a non-directional hypothesis?

This anticipates a difference but not the direction, only there is a link or correlation

What is reliability?

consistency of measurement

What is validity?

Is the study a measure of true life: ecological, population + temporal

What is the independent groups design?

Where each participant takes part in only one condition of the experiment.

Give two advantages of the independent groups design

No order effects + Less time-consuming

Give two disadvantages of the independent groups design

More people are needed + Risk of participant variables affecting the results

What is a repeated measures design?

All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment

Give two advantages of a repeated measures design

No participant variables + Less participants needed

Give two disadvantages of a repeated measures design

Risk of order effects + if one participant chooses to drop out, data from both conditions will be lost

What is a matched pairs design?

Allocating different, but similar participants to each condition of the IV in the experiment. Pairs are matched based on similar characteristics, such as age, gender, IQ.

Give two advantages of a matched pairs design

Order effects will not be observed + reduces participant variables.

Give two disadvantages of a matched pairs design

Matching is a complex process + if one participant drops out both Ps data become useless

What is counterbalancing?

An way to control for order effects in a repeated measures design: half the participants experience the conditions in one order, and the other half in the opposite order.

What is standardization?

Defining uniform testing procedures within an experiment

What is a pilot study?

A small-scale trial run of the actual investigation

What is a confederate?

An actor who participates in a psychological experiment pretending to be a subject.

What are investigator effects

Any effects of the investigator's behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the research outcome.

What is opportunity sampling?

Taking a sample of people who are available at the time that the study is being carried out and fit the criteria of the research.

Give two advantages of opportunity sampling

Quick, Convenient + Economical

Give two disadvantages of opportunity sampling

Unrepresentative + Can't be generalised

What is Random Sampling?

Every member of the general public have an equal chance at being selected.

Give an advantage of Random Sampling

Best way to get an unbiased sample

Give a disadvantage of Random Sampling

Can be very time consuming

What is Stratified Sampling?

Dividing the target population into important subcategories and making the sample representative of the population.

Give an advantage of Stratified Sampling

Representative + Generalisable

Give a disadvantage of Stratified sampling

Time Consuming

What is Systematic Sampling?

The required participants are chosen at regular intervals from an ordered list

Give an advantage of Systematic Sampling

Ethics as it leads to informed consent

Give a disadvantage of Systematic Sampling

Very unrepresentative as typically, similar people volunteer

What is Volunteer Sampling?

Individuals volunteer to be a part of the study; Self- Selected

What is Informed Consent?

A participant's agreement to take part in a study after being told what to expect.

What is deception?

Deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants

In terms of the BPS Ethics Guidelines, what does it mean to protect the participant from harm?

The experiment has a duty to protect the participants from physical and psychological harm, and provide them with support or help afterwards.

What is meant by privacy/confidentiality?

Participants have a right to remain anonymous and the experimenter has a duty to protect the participants personal information.

What two types of form must be provided for the participant?

Informed Consent Form and Written Debriefing Form

What is naturalistic observation?

a research technique in which the researcher observes and describes behavior without interfering.

Give one advantage of naturalistic observation

High Ecological Validity

Give one disadvantage of naturalistic observation

Cannot be replicated

What is controlled observation?

Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment - participants know they're being observed.

What is overt observation?

Participants' behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent.

Give one advantage of overt observation

Has informed consent

Give one advantage of controlled observation

Can be replicated

Give one disadvantage of controlled observation

Low Ecological Validity

Give one disadvantage of overt observation

Could be susceptible to investigator effects

What is Covert Observation?

The participants are UNAWARE of the observation.

Give one advantage of covert observation

Reduces risk of investigator effects

Give one disadvantage of covert observation

Less ethical

What is Participant Observation?

Give one advantage of Participant Observation

In-depth data

Give one disadvantage of Participant Observation

The investigator could influence participant behaviour

What is Non-Particpant Observation?

The observer watches from a distance and DOESN'T interact with the group.

Give one disadvantage of Non-Participant Observation

Might miss behaviours of interest

Give one advantage of Non-Participant Observation

Less Evaluation Apprehension (participants do not feel they are judged for their behaviours)

What is Structured observation?

Give one advantage of Structured Observation

Standardised

What is Unstructured Observation?

When the researcher writes down everything they see

Give one disadvantage of Unstructured Observation

Harder to replicate

What is event sampling?

counting the number of times a particular behaviour occurs within a period of time

What is time sampling?

recording ANY behaviour within a time interval

What is a questionnaire?

A questionnaire is a self report that consists of a set of questions that aims to collect information.

What is a structured interview?

A set of relational questions that have been prepared and typically, are standard for all partcipants.

What is an unstructured interview?

Involves asking non-relational questions about a topic, and free-flowing conversation.

What is social desirability bias?

Choosing an answer that is socially acceptable rather than the truth or what the participant believes.

What are intervewer effects?

When an interviewer ( consciously or unconsciously) asks or manipulates the questions in order to get a certain response.

strong positive correlation

r values close to 1 (for example, between 0.75 to 1)

strong negative correlation

r values close to -1 (for example between -1 and -0.75)

zero correlation

no relationship between variables

weak negative correlation

-0.1 < r < -0.4

What is the correlation coefficient?

The strength of the relationship between two sets of data from -1 to 1.

weak positive correlation

0.1 < r < 0.4

What is qualitative data?

Descriptive data

Give and advantage and disadvantage of qualitative data

Advantage: Rich in information
Disadvantage: Subjective and Less reliable

What is quantitative data?

Numerical data

Give and advantage and disadvantage of quantitative data

Advantage: Data is precise and objective
Disadvantage: Reductionist + doesn't factor in opinion

What is nominal data?

Data that can be placed in categories and cannot be ranked (colours, gender etc)

What is Ordinal data?

Data that can be placed in a sequence (e.g. best, worst, oldest - youngest).

What is Interval data?

Precise measurements on a scale with equal intervals between scores i.e time or centimetres

What is ratio data?

Data with numbers that are separated by equal intervals and has a true meaningful zero (e.g. temperature, currency).

What is a measure of central tendency?

An average

What is a measure of dispersion?

A statistic that describes the spread of data (Range or standard deviation)