Eras and Genres (Level 10 History)

The Middle Ages (476-1450)

• monophonic and polyphonic textures

• the evolution of notation

• an expanded melodic range

• the structuring of rhythm

• music composed for both sacred and secular genres

Gregorian Chant (origins)

Evolving from the Hebrew chant tradition, this music served as functional music in the Catholic Liturgy, originally being passed down orally but which eventually became one of the earliest forms of notated music in the Western tradition. It was organized and codified during the papal reign of Pope Gregory the Great (590-604), and went on to be used as the basis of many new compositions during the Middle Ages and Renaissance.

Gregorian Chant (features)

The features of this genre are that it has a:

monophonic texture, is modal, moves by step or narrow leap, is sung in a relatively narrow range; has unmeasured rhythm, the melody following the natural inflections of the text and sung freely; and is based on Latin texts.

Organum (origins)

This genre began as an improvised practice, and evolved over several centuries. The first notated examples are found in the 9th century treatise “Musica Enchiriadis.” Composers at Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris further developed it in the 12th and 13th centuries.

Organum (features)

The features of this genre are that:

One line contains the original chant (cantus firmus); initially parallel lines were added to these melodies, but later developments by the Notre Dame composers involved a wider variety of intervals, rhythms, and melodic motion in newly-composed upper parts.

Motet (origins)

An important stage in the development of polyphony, through the addition of new texts for the upper voice of organum (to make the awkward and textless lines easier to sing). Secular and sacred texts-even if in two different languages- were mixed (however- this created the suggestions of “double meanings”).

Motet (features)

A musical work/genre in 3 voices, where the bottom is the cantus firmus, and the upper voices are more rhythmically active (and, due to having the same range, often cross parts). The harmonies are most often in the primary harmonic intervals (P4, P5, and P8).

Chanson (origins)

Secular monophonic songs which flourished in the 12th and 13th centuries, composed primarily by trouvères (who used langue d’oïl) and troubadours (who used langue d’oc). These songs were recorded in songbooks called chansonniers.

Chanson (features)

The features of this genre are that it has:

• A monophonic texture

• Modal melodies

• Often in strophic form

• Improvised instrumental accompaniment

• Texts expressed the conventions of the courtly love tradition that is associated with the age of chivalry.

Dance Music (origins)

Instrumental music based on a tradition of improvisation, which served as functional music, instrumentalists originally providing music for social dances, until stylized dances were created for listening only. The earliest notated examples come from the 13th century (because notating music was time consuming, costly, and unnecessary for an illiterate society).

Dance Music (features)

The features of this genre are that:

• The earliest examples were monophonic in texture and based on modal melodies.

• Accompaniments were often improvised rather than notated.

• Earliest types were estampie, ronde, and basse dance.

• Formal structure was often sectional, to allow for flexibility in the length.

Mass (origins)

• The earliest settings of music in this genre were purely-functional monophonic chants, but composers from across the eras expanded it to incorporate the stylistic currents of their times, therein creating a genre with its own history.

• In the 12th and 13th centuries, many chants from this genre served as the basis for organum.

• The first complete polyphonic setting of a work of this genre, from the 14th century, is among the longest extant works from the Middle Ages.

Mass (features)

The features of this genre are that:

It is the most important service in the Liturgy of the Roman Catholic Church, consisting of texts that are variable according to the Church calendar (Proper) and texts that remain the same (Ordinary). The earliest musical settings were monophonic and modal with unmeasured rhythm. However, with the development of polyphony, the Ordinary movements were set more frequently, wherein composers explored the musical devices and techniques of their times.

Renaissance era (“rebirth”)

The period ca. 1450-1600 in European history when people turned from the Church to science and also pursued greater individualism, which in turn led to continuous changes and developments in musical style.

Renaissance era (origins)

Many Church scholars fled from Constantinople in 1453 to Rome, bringing their knowledge of Greek and Hebrew which revived interest in classical antiquity, the visual arts, and music. During this period there was also much growth in astronomy and mathematics, and the invention of the printing press in 1440 allowed music to be reproduced and disseminated (leading to a greater exchange of international styles and influences).

Renaissance era (features)

The features of this era are that:

• There is a greater use of thirds and fifths in triadic harmony within modal context.

• The development of tonality (toward the end of this era).

• Rich polyphonic texture with imitative counterpoint, complemented with homophonic passages for clear text declamation.

• Vivid word painting (due to the close relationship between text and music).

Motet (15th century developments)

A work that evolved to be based on a single text, with a focus on clarity and more direct communication. It became a developing and flourishing genre that composers could use to experiment with new approaches to contrapuntal writing.

Motet (15th century features)

The features of this genre are that:

It is sacred yet non-liturgical music, featuring a polyphonic texture of imitative counterpoint that is often contrasted with homorhythmic sections, generally written for four voices with one Latin-based text (therefore no polytextuality), and makes use of a new era of harmonic language (thirds and sixths).

Mass (Renaissance developments)

• This genre began as monophonic chants

• In the 12th and 13th centuries the chants (especially from the Mass Propers) served as the basis for organum

• In the 14th century, the Mass Ordinary began to be written in polyphonic form

• In the Renaissance era, the polyphonic Mass Ordinary was used to explore a wide range of contrapuntal techniques

Mass (Renaissance features)

The features of this genre now are:

• Unified polyphonic setting of the Mass Ordinary (4-6 voices)

• Secular songs used as a source for the cantus firmus

• Movements could be linked thematically (same motive:cantus firmus throughout all sections)

• Could be freely composed, with all new material

• Composers combined imitative counterpoint with homorhythmic passages for variety and interest in the text setting.

Madrigal (origins)

A type of secular song that flourished in small aristocratic courts in Italy (Venice, Ferrara, and Mantua) before gaining widespread popularity in Europe and England. Initially it was homophonic, focusing on bringing pleasure to the performers (amateur musicians), then later evolved into a more complex polyphonic texture with increased chromaticism for an aristocratic audience, until (in the final decades of the 16th century and the early 17th century) it assumed a highly mannered, virtuosic style (the personal expression of the composer), and finally (in the early 17th century) it featured elements of the Baroque style (ex. basso continuo, and a dramatic, declamatory style).

Madrigal (features)

The features of this genre:

The musical expression of poems of a lyric or reflective character about love and desire, politics, humour, and satire, which were through-composed, and feature the prominent word painting of ideas, images, and emotions. The late style featured chromaticism as an expressive device.

Keyboard Music (origins)

In this genre, the organ was the first predominant keyboard, as it enjoyed an exalted position in the Roman Catholic Church from the earliest days. The earliest notated music for this genre is in the Robertsbridge Codex (1325), although the pieces are not idiomatic (written for 2 octaves and included arrangements based on vocal models and dances in the Italian style).

In the 17th century though, keyboard instruments (organ, harpsichord, clavichord) emerged as prominent instruments, each with its own repertoire, which the growth of music publishing helped greatly to develop.

The Baroque era (ca. 1600-1750)

A time of turbulence and contrast, of absolute monarchy and of religious conflict, with there being both opulent wealth and abject poverty. These divergent characteristics were reflected in arts and culture through dramatic subject matter, vivid colours, violent images, and intricate ornamentation. At the same time, math, science, and medicine developed significantly, giving rise to new currents in philosophy.

Baroque era (developments)

• Major-minor system (the harmonic backbone of the era);

• Figured bass (intentionality that still allows performing freedom) and basso continuo;

• Great attention given to instrumental music, as seen in the concerto (large ensemble versus soloist/group of soloists), suite (groups of contrasting stylized dances to create multi-movement works for orchestra or solo keyboard), and opera (a single vocal line replacing polyphonic texture);

• A greater intimacy between text and music (seen in the cantata and oratorio);

• Human emotions expressed in both vocal and instrumental genres.

Opera (origins)

In Florence, Italy, around the year 1600, this genre emerged through the efforts of the Florentine Camerata, who were inspired by a renewed interest in Classical antiquity (Greek drama), and became the most important development in the 17th-century music.

The precursors to this genre include:

• Medieval liturgical drama (Hildegard von Bingen);

• madrigal cycles (Claudio Monteverdi); and

• Italian intermedio (musical interludes between acts in a play).

Opera (features)

The features of this genre are:

A drama presented through music, where all or most of the text is sung, combining art, literature, theatre, and dance with music. The musical components include recitative, aria, ensembles, and choruses.

Cantata (origins)

This genre began as a form of chamber music for solo voice with continuo, and was adopted into Lutheran services in the 18th century.

Johann Sebastian Bach composed over 300 works in this genre, with about 200 surviving.

Suite (origins)

• Renaissance era: dances were paired to emphasize contrast (ex. pavane and galliard);

• Baroque era: this grouping evolved into the dance suite;

• France (17th century): the grouping of dances originated here, called ordre in reference to collections of dances in the same key;

• Germany (17th century): A standard order was established by Johann Jakob Froberger.

• Works in this genre were composed for both solo keyboard and orchestra.

The Classical era (developments)

The developments of this era include:

• The creation of sonata form (which would be used in multiple genres in all succeeding eras, and which defined the structure of genres such as the symphony, string quartet, and concerto.

• Homophony (a single melody line supported by harmonies)

• Balanced phrases (usually 4 measures) that are defined by clear cadences

• The replacement of the harpsichord with the piano

• The defining of the symphony orchestra by its four instrumental families: strings, woodwinds, brass, and percussion.

Classical era (ca 1750~1825)

An era known as “The Age of Enlightenment,” characterized by the pursuit of knowledge, rational thinking, and a growing desire for equality among all people.

In music, the Baroque ornate, opulent, and densely polyphonic style was replaced by a lyrical, symmetrical style, inspired by the simplicity and clean lines of Greco-Roman architectural models.

Symphony (origins)

This genre was developed in the 18th century by composers of the Mannheim School, who added the Menuet and Trio movement to the 3-section Italian overture (which was fast-slow-fast), thereby establishing the four-movement sonata cycle. The newly-emerging sonata form was also incorporated, generally in the first movement, and the music was composed with the new orchestral division of 4 families (strings, woodwinds, brass, and percussion) in mind.

Symphony (features)

The features of this genre are:

• A multi-movement orchestral work, for an orchestra consisting of 4 families

• Generally these works were written in 4 movements:

  1. In the tonic key, sonata form, and lively (though it may begin with a slow introduction)

  2. In the subdominant key, ternary or rondo form or theme and variations, with a slow tempo and a lyrical, expressive character

  3. In the tonic key, ternary or menuet/scherzo and trio form, with a (moderately) fast tempo, and an elegant character for the menuet or a dynamic character for the scherzo

  4. In the tonic key, sonata or sonata-rondo form or theme and variations, with a fast or lively tempo (as a lively finale)

Oratorio (origins)

• The name of this genre is derived from the original place of performance

• This vocal genre came about due to the Roman Catholic Church’s ban on opera during Lent

• This genre can be traced to Italy in the late 16th century

• Giacomo Carissimi, Antonio Vivaldi, J.S. Bach, and G.F. Handel all made important contributions to this genre’s repertoire

Oratorio (features)

The features of this genre are:

• Contains an orchestral overture, recitatives, arias, and choruses

• Performing forces include vocal soloists and chorus, and orchestra (including basso continuo)

• Usually is based on a sacred theme, often with biblical texts

• Performed in a concert setting without costumes, scenery, or acting

Concerto (Classical era developments)

• Became a vehicle for virtuosity and provided opportunities for experiments with musical architecture

• The Baroque ritornello form was gradually replaced with sonata form (which Mozart adapted into double exposition)

• The piano eventually eclipsed the violin in popularity within this genre

Concerto (Classical era features)

The features of this genre now are:

• Written in 3 movements (fast-slow-fast)

• The first movement is based on sonata form with a double exposition

• A cadenza is launched from a cadential 6/4 chord, usually improvised (or prepared) by the soloist

Sonata (origins)

• The term for this genre originally designated instrumental works (as opposed to vocal works)

• In the Baroque era, the term referred to solo or chamber works

• When developed in the Baroque era for the keyboard, it was typically a single-movement work in binary or rounded binary form

• In the Classical era, this genre as a multi-movement keyboard work emerged

Sonata (features)

The features of this genre are:

• Usually written in 3 or 4 movements

  • The first movement is typically in sonata form

  • The second (slow) could draw on several different forms (sonata, rondo, theme and variations)

  • A third movement (menuet and trio) was included in some cases

  • The final movement was typically in sonata, rondo, or sonata-rondo form

• Outer movements usually emphasize technical brilliance, while the slow movement(s) demonstrates lyricism.

Chamber music (origins)

• Ensemble music was popular from the Renaissance era (consorts and ensembles), and continued to be popular throughout the Baroque era

• In the Classical era, with the increase in amateur music making (and with patrons actively taking part), this genre increased in importance

Chamber music (features)

The features of this genre are:

• A “musical conversation between friends”

• Music for small ensemble, with one player per part

• The string quartet was one of the most popular of this type of ensemble in its era, along with the duo sonata and the piano trio.