Medieval to Renaissance Europe: Feudalism, Humanism, and Exploration

Feudalism

A decentralized political and social system of the Middle Ages in which kings granted land to nobles in exchange for military service, while peasants worked the land. Its decline set the stage for centralized monarchies in early modern Europe.

Serfdom

The system in which peasants were bound to the land, obligated to provide labor or rent to their lords. Serfdom weakened as labor shortages after the Black Death increased peasants' bargaining power.

Black Death

A devastating plague (1347-1351) that killed a third to half of Europe's population. It disrupted feudal society, contributed to peasant revolts, and accelerated economic and social change.

Peasant revolts

Popular uprisings like the English Peasants' Revolt (1381) and French Jacquerie (1358) challenged feudal burdens and taxation, showing growing resentment against elites.

Hundred Years' War

A prolonged conflict (1337-1453) between England and France. It devastated regions, spurred nationalism, and weakened feudal nobles, contributing to the rise of stronger monarchies.

Reformers

Lollards and Hussites : Early religious dissenters—John Wycliffe's Lollards in England and Jan Hus's Hussites in Bohemia—criticized corruption in the Catholic Church and foreshadowed the Reformation.

Great Schism (1378-1417)

A split within the Catholic Church where rival popes in Rome and Avignon claimed authority. It damaged papal prestige and fueled calls for reform.

City-state

Independent states like Florence, Venice, and Milan that dominated Italian politics and culture. Their wealth from trade and banking fueled Renaissance patronage.

Cosimo de' Medici

A powerful Florentine banker who became a de facto ruler of Florence. His patronage of art and scholarship advanced Renaissance humanism.

Humanism

An intellectual movement emphasizing the study of classical texts, human potential, and secular concerns. It was the foundation of Renaissance thought.

Liberal arts

The classical curriculum—grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, and moral philosophy—that humanists revived as essential for civic life.

Antiquity

Refers to the Greco-Roman world. Renaissance thinkers looked back to antiquity for inspiration in art, literature, and philosophy.

Petrarch

Often called the "father of humanism." He emphasized classical learning and the value of individual achievement.

Dante

Italian poet, author of the Divine Comedy, which bridged medieval religious thought and Renaissance humanism.

Boccaccio

Author of The Decameron, which reflected humanist values and depicted everyday people during the Black Death.

Castiglione

Wrote The Book of the Courtier, which outlined ideals of the Renaissance man—well-rounded, educated, skilled in arms and the arts.

Christine de Pisan

Early feminist writer, author of The Book of the City of Ladies, defending women's education and worth.

Pico della Mirandola

Philosopher who wrote Oration on the Dignity of Man, emphasizing human free will and potential.

Civic humanism

A branch of humanism stressing active participation in politics and service to the community, especially in republican city-states like Florence.

Characteristics of Renaissance art

Use of perspective, realistic anatomy, classical themes, balance, and secular as well as religious subjects.

Leonardo da Vinci

Artist, inventor, and scientist; works like The Last Supper and Mona Lisa epitomized Renaissance ideals of observation and human expression.

Raphael

Known for works like The School of Athens, celebrating classical learning and harmony.

Michelangelo

Sculptor and painter; his David and Sistine Chapel ceiling embodied Renaissance humanism and mastery of form.

Mannerism

A later Renaissance style marked by elongated figures and unusual perspectives, reflecting tension and complexity after the High Renaissance.

Treaty of Lodi

Established a balance of power among Italian city-states, creating relative peace until foreign invasions disrupted Italy.

Papal States

Territories in central Italy under papal rule, reflecting the Pope's dual religious and political authority.

Machiavelli

Author of The Prince (1513), which emphasized pragmatic, sometimes ruthless political leadership. Seen as the father of modern political science.

New Monarchy

Term for rulers who consolidated power, reduced nobles' independence, and built centralized states in the late 15th century.

Taxation (gabelle/alcabala/taille)

Examples of royal taxes that strengthened monarchies—gabelle (salt tax in France), alcabala (sales tax in Spain), and taille (land tax in France).

Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile (c. 1475-1516)

Their marriage united Spain, established royal authority, completed the Reconquista, expelled Jews and Muslims, and sponsored Columbus.

Charles V, "Holy Roman Emperor" (c. 1516-1556)

Ruler of a vast empire including Spain, the Habsburg lands, and parts of the Americas. His reign embodied the challenges of ruling a fragmented Europe.

War of the Roses (1455-1485)/Henry VII (a.k.a. Henry Tudor, 1485-1509)

English civil war between rival noble houses. Henry Tudor (Henry VII) emerged victorious, founding the Tudor dynasty and beginning England's centralization.

Northern Renaissance

The spread of Renaissance ideas north of Italy, blending classical humanism with Christian themes.

Christian humanism

Emphasized using classical learning to reform the Church and deepen spiritual life.

Gutenberg/printing press

Invented c. 1450, it revolutionized communication, spreading humanist and reformist ideas quickly.

Erasmus

Dutch humanist crucial to the Northern Rennaisance. Promoted reform through education and moral renewal; wrote In Praise of Folly.

Thomas More, Utopia

English humanist who envisioned a just, communal society in Utopia, criticizing corruption in Europe.

Prince Henry the Navigator

Portuguese prince who sponsored voyages along Africa's coast, pioneering navigation and trade routes.

Explorers (Who were they, what did they do)

Columbus reached the Americas in 1492;

Vespucci's accounts led to the name "America"

Magellan's expedition circumnavigated the globe.

Aztecs

Mesoamerican empire conquered by Hernán Cortés.

Incas

Andean empire conquered by Francisco Pizarro.

Missionaries

Catholic clergy, especially Jesuits and Franciscans, who sought to convert indigenous peoples.

Conquistadores

Spanish conquerors of the Americas who pursued wealth, glory, and conversion of natives.

Forced labor systems

Hacienda and encomienda : Systems exploiting indigenous labor—haciendas were agricultural estates, while encomiendas granted Spanish landowners the right to indigenous labor in exchange for supposed protection.

Treaty of Tordesillas

1494 agreement dividing the New World between Spain and Portugal, mediated by the Pope.

Banking

Medici and Fugger families : Wealthy banking families in Florence and Augsburg, respectively, who financed monarchs, trade, and Renaissance art, symbolizing the rise of capitalist practices.

What did New Monarchy look like in Spain

Ferdinand of Aragon & Isabella of Castile

• Marriage in 1469 unified Spain under joint rule, though Aragon and Castile remained legally separate.

• Completed the Reconquista in 1492 by conquering Granada.

• Established the Spanish Inquisition to enforce religious conformity.

• Expelled Jews and Muslims, linking monarchy with Catholic identity.

• Centralized authority through councils and a standing army.

• Funded overseas exploration, including Columbus’s 1492 voyage.

Explain NM in France and Spain, then compare the 2

England (Tudor Monarchy)

• Henry VII (1485–1509) laid the foundation after the Wars of the Roses. He ended decades of noble conflict by centralizing power in the monarchy.

• He established the Star Chamber Court, which allowed him to try nobles without traditional jury trials, limiting aristocratic independence.

• Henry used royal council and bureaucracy staffed by middle-class men rather than nobles, ensuring loyalty to the crown.

• He avoided costly wars to build financial stability, strengthening the monarchy without overtaxing subjects.

• The Tudors (Henry VII, Henry VIII, Elizabeth I) continued to expand royal power, relying less on feudal lords and more on centralized authority and professional administration.

France (Valois Monarchy)

• Louis XI (1461–1483), “the Spider King”, greatly strengthened royal power by controlling the nobility and expanding the crown’s landholdings (e.g., annexing Burgundy).

• He established a royal army paid for by the state rather than depending on feudal levies, which weakened the independence of nobles.

• The French crown developed direct taxation, such as the taille (land tax) and gabelle (salt tax), which provided the monarchy with stable revenue.

• Later monarchs (Francis I, Henry II) increased ties between the monarchy and the Catholic Church through the Concordat of Bologna (1516), which allowed the French king to appoint bishops and abbots. This gave the crown greater influence over religion and politics.

Comparison

• Both monarchies centralized authority, reduced noble power, and built up systems of taxation and administration.

• England relied more on legal and political methods (Star Chamber, avoiding war) while France emphasized a standing army and taxation.

• Both laid the groundwork for the rise of the modern nation-state, but France’s monarchy was more heavily militarized, whereas England’s was more financially cautious and legally innovative.