Rome: Women of Legend, Young Women, Women in the Home

Who was the first king of Rome?

Romulus

Why did Romulus invite neighbouring tribes to attend a festival to Neptune (Consualia) in Rome?

So he could abduct their women, of which there was a shortage in the Roman population

What was the name of the tribe from which the Romans stole women to repopulate Rome?

Sabines

What was planned for the most beautiful Sabine women among the crowds at the Roman festival?

To be given to the patrician (noble-class) Romans

What did Romulus offer the Sabine women and their children, which worked to soothe their outrage at being abducted?

Roman citizenship

What did the Roman men do to the Sabine women, described by Livy as 'the most effective way of appealing to a woman's heart'?

'Charmed' the maidens by expressing lots of love and longing

What was the name of the Sabines' king?

Tatius

When the Sabines attacked Rome in revenge, how did the battle come to an end?

The Sabine women ran into the middle of the battlefield, pleading for it to stop, saying that they were the cause of the war

Who was the girl whose name was given to a famous cliff in Rome from which traitors were thrown to their deaths?

Tarpeia

Why was Tarpeia crushed to death as a traitor under Sabine shields in one version of her story?

For betraying her people by succumbing to bribery, asking for the Sabines' jewellery in exchange for their entry to Rome

How is Tarpeia portrayed as a heroine rather than a traitor in an alternative version of her story?

She asks for the Sabines' shields in exchange for entry, in order to disarm them in the fight against the Romans

Who was Collatinus?

Lucretia's husband and a leading Roman

How was Lucretia found when the Roman generals visited their wives in secret, and what were the other wives doing?

Lucretia: virtuously spinning late at night Other wives: selfishly banqueting with friends

What was the name of the Roman prince who was overcome with desire after seeing Lucretia's virtue?

Sextus Tarquinius Superbus

Lucretia refused to have sex with Superbus, but what threat did Superbus make to cause her to submit to him?

He would lay a naked slave beside her dead body to shame her

How did Lucretia commit suicide?

Stabbed herself in the heart

Where was Lucretia's body taken after her death to incite the masses?

Roman Forum

What did the Roman public do in response to seeing Lucretia's body and hearing her story? What happened to the royal family?

Rose up against the king and his son, Superbus; fled into exile

What was the Latin name for the Roman concept of sexual modesty, of which Lucretia is the epitome in this story?

pudicitia

Why was Lucretia considered as having a manly spirit by Roman poet Ovid in regard to her death?

She died by sword, rather than hanging or poison which was more common in literature for women

What was the Roman equivalent of a kyrios called?

paterfamilias

What is patria potestas?

A paterfamilias' complete control over his household (family and slaves)

Why were girls more at risk of exposure than boys?

More expensive to raise girls because of a family's dowry responsibility

How was a girl's name decided in Rome?

She would take a feminine version of her father's name (e.g. Julius > Julia; Claudius > Claudia)

What was the name of the lucky charm given to young children to ward off evil?

Bulla

What three things would a litterator teach primary-aged children (if they could afford it)?

Reading, writing and arithmetic (basic maths)

How could a family educate their children if they had no money?

They couldn't since no state education on offer. Boys were usually chosen over girls if money was tight.

Which academic subjects were only on offer to boys?

History, geometry, music, philosophy, law, rhetoric

How is Maesia a good example that Roman women could have been well educated in law and rhetoric?

She successfully defended herself in the law courts, proving she must have been able to speak well and that she understood the law.

Why might a paterfamilias with little money want to get his son married?

To receive a dowry from the bride.

When could a Roman girl reject a fiance, and why was this unlikely?

When the groom was 'of bad character'. Unlikely because brides would be very young, so it would be difficult to dispute her father's choice.

Whose family did a bride belong to after a cum manu marriage?

To the family of her new husband, who was her new paterfamilias.

What rights did a woman who married cum manu have in her new household?

She could inherit her husband's property when he died, and earned the title materfamilias if her husband was paterfamilias of his household.

Whose family did a bride belong to after a sine manu marriage?

To her own family. Her father would remain her paterfamilias.

Why were sine manu marriages more common in wealthier families?

It made sure that the woman would be able to inherit from her parents, so kept money in the immediate family. They also required no dowry.

Why might a sine manu marriage have been a less secure prospect for a woman?

Her husband could choose to divorce her easily since there was no dowry to repay.

Wealthier families celebrated betrothal by gifting the bride with a ring to be worn on her fourth finger. What was the belief behind this custom?

The Romans believed there was a vein running directly from the fourth finger to the heart.

Whose family did children always belong to?

The father's.

Which wedding ceremony involved a spelt cake offered to Jupiter by the bride and groom, presided over by a pronuba?

Confarreatio

Which wedding ceremony involved scales, on which the bride's paterfamilias would lay a coin to symbolise her dowry, 'selling' her?

Coemptio

Which type of wedding involved no ceremony at all, and was the only one to result in a sine manu marriage?

Usus

What colour of veil would a Roman bridge wear on her wedding day?

Flame-coloured

What dramatised event would the groom act out at the end of their wedding feast?

The groom would 'abduct' the bride from her mother in a pretend show of force.

What would the Roman bride do with the three coins she carried during the procession?

One dropped during procession as an offering to Janus, god of new beginnings; one gifted to her husband to symbolise dowry; last one offered to the Lares (household gods) of her new household.

What was a matrona?

A married Roman woman

What was a materfamilias?

A matrona married to the paterfamilias of the household

What authority would a materfamilias have in her household?

Authority over slaves, children and dependent unmarried women (i.e. daughters)

What was the first and most important duty of an Athenian kyria?

Bearing children and ensuring continuation of the household, so that the children would advance the wealth and status of the household

How were male children useful to their household?

They could work to earn money. Boys from wealthy families could advance family status by excelling in areas such as law, politics or the military.

How were female children useful to their household?

They could be given in marriage to allies or business partners, solidifying relationships between families

What evidence is there to show how dangerous pregnancy and childbirth was in Rome?

Many grave epitaphs show that women died as a result of this in their early teens and early twenties

What other duties would a matrona from a poor family have to do?

Cooking, cleaning, spinning and weaving wool, looking after children, and possibly working a job to bring money into the household.

What other duties would a matrona from a wealthy family have to do?

Far fewer duties since she would have a number of slaves to do her tasks, so lots of time for leisure, and likely well educated since she could read books, visit friends and keep up with politics.

What freedoms could Roman matronae enjoy in the first and second centuries BCE (200-1 BCE), and why did they have this freedom?

Free to leav. the house, and could attend public games, festivals and the theatre. The Roman empire was expanding rapidly and becoming a lot more wealthy, so noble women had much more leisure time as a result of having lots of slaves.

What was the Roman system of patronage?

A professional relationship between an influential Roman patron and a less influential client, in which the patron would provide contacts, advice and financial support and the client would support the patron in their business or political endeavours.

What role would a wealthy matrona have at her husband's dinner parties, and how was this important to the system of patronage?

She would organise them and attend them, ensuring that they ran smoothly and presenting herself well to boost the family's reputation. These events were important ways of meeting new clients, so her role was vital in assisting her husband's roles in business and politics.

What responsibilities would a matrona have when her husband was away from home for extended periods of time (e.g. military duty)?

She would take a leading role in managing the public affairs of the household and its businesses.

How were a matrona's rights limited, despite her freedoms?

Women could not make wills or sign contracts. They could not sell property, free a slave or bring a lawsuit to court. Her paterfamlias would have to do all these things.

What rights did Roman women have regarding property and inheritance, unlike in Athens?

They could own land and property, and could be named heiresses in a will. Women could be responsible for the management of property as a result.

What is the Laudatio Turiae?

A funerary inscription meaning 'in praise of Turia', giving a rare account of a husband's love for his wife. It was likely also a eulogy given at her funeral.

What impressive qualities of Turia's does the Laudatio Turiae demonstrate?

Very accomplished in the domestic sphere (faithful, obedient, wool-working, modest, devotion to family, shared all her property with her husband) and fearless and effective in the public sphere of politics (fought for her husband's return after his exile from Rome, saved his life when thugs came to the house; was physically beaten when begging for her husband's mercy from a politician)

What tragedy struck Turia's family, and what did she do in response to show how devoted she was to her husband?

They couldn't conceive children. Turia offered to find her husband another wife, to which he declined out of love for her.

How was divorce carried out in Rome?

Very easy to organise. The husband or wife would simply declare the marriage was over, and the woman returned home to her original paterfamilias, leaving any children they had with the husband.

What would happen to the dowry if a man initiated divorce?

The whole dowry went back to the woman and her family.

What would happen to the dowry if a woman initiated divorce?

The man could claim a portion of the dowry for each child that marriage had produced, and more if the wife had been adulterous.

How were Roman adultery laws different to Athenian ones?

No difference. Men could have sexual relations with anyone as long as they were not married or an unmarried daughter of a Roman citizen. Women had to be completely faithful to their husband.

What would be the consequence of a Roman woman having an affair with another Roman citizen?

She would be divorced and forfeit her dowry.

What would be the consequence of a Roman woman having an affair with a slave?

She would be killed and the slave would be burnt alive.

What were the other common reasons for divorce?

Infertility. The Roman citizen, Carvillus, is described as divorcing his wife even though he loved her intensely, because they couldn't conceive children (Source: Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights). Business/political reasons. If families no longer found their alliances convenient, divorce would be carried out to form alliances elsewhere.

What proportion of the population was made of slaves by the first century BCE?

A third of all people living in the city were slaves. The Roman empire had expanded to such an extent that slaves were very common (victims of war).

What duties could female slaves perform in Rome?

Prostitution and domestic duties like Athens, though they could also be found providing skilled labour in their master's business.

What benefits could slave children be granted in Rome?

Sometimes given an education alongside Roman children to make them more useful. Therefore some slave girls could read, write and do arithmetic to help with the family's household management.

How did owning slaves affect a family's reputation?

It was seen as a status symbol to own many slaves. Wealthy families therefore would keep a great number of them, each with specific jobs.

What was the vilica?

A female slave responsible for managing the household, the most well-respected variety of female slave.

What would a vilica's duties involve?

Tending to the family hearth and lararium (shrine for household gods); grinding flour; preserving fruit; cooking food. Her role was very similar to that of a peasant farmer's wife -- one of authority in the household.

Slaves were not allowed to be married, but what partnerships were they permitted to form in Rome?

A contubernium (meaning cohabiting).

How could a contubernium benefit a Roman household?

The slaves could produce children which would increase the number of slaves in the household.

How did the treatment of slaves differ in Rome compared to Athens?

Again, depended on masters who could treat them kindly or horribly. Evidence for some masters paying slaves for work in Rome.

How likely was it for slaves to be freed by masters in Rome, and what sort of life would an ex-slave lead?

Much more common for Roman masters to free their slaves, after which they could live and work as they chose, though still be considered second-class citizens and still have certain duties to their previous masters.