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What challenges did peacemakers face in Europe after WWI?
Sudden defeat of Central Powers led to vulnerability to communism.
Collapse of empires (Russian, Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian) caused new nations to form.
Spanish flu pandemic in spring 1919.
Starvation in central/eastern Europe: famine in Russia, serious food shortages in Turkey, Bulgaria, Italy.
How did public opinion in Allied countries shape peacemaking efforts?
In Britain, USA, France, and Italy, public opinion demanded ruthless consolidation of battlefield gains and severe punishment of the enemy.
What was the significance of the US elections in November 1918?
Republicans gained a majority, challenging President Wilson’s push for a "soft" peace.
Republicans wanted Germany harshly punished and opposed financing European rebuilding.
What were the two main aims of the Paris Peace Conference?
Develop a new international order for permanent peace.
Punish the conflict's instigators and extract maximum compensation for victims.
Which five powers controlled the Paris Peace Conference?
France, Britain, USA, Italy, and Japan.
What was President Wilson's vision for a "just peace"?
Free trade, self-rule, disarmament, and an end to secret treaties.
Formation of the League of Nations to resolve conflicts.
Creation of nation-states for Austro-Hungarian groups.
What were Britain’s main concerns at the Peace Conference?
Maintain naval superiority and eliminate the German naval threat.
Deprive Germany of colonies to secure trade and reward the British Empire.
Gain Middle Eastern land for oil resources, confirmed in the Sykes-Picot Agreement.
Why did Britain support reparations from Germany?
To cover war expenses, including soldiers’ pensions.
Germany’s reparations would help Belgium and France repay their debts to Britain.
Britain needed to repay the US billions of dollars of war debt.
Why did Britain also advocate for Germany’s economic recovery?
Stabilize international trade.
Recover overseas markets lost to the USA during the war.
Use Germany as a barrier against Bolshevism spreading from communist Russia.
What territorial changes did France demand at the Peace Conference?
Return of Alsace and Lorraine, annexed by Germany in 1871.
Creation of Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia.
Independent Rhineland to serve as a buffer zone.
Why did France demand reparations, and how much did they consider asking?
To rebuild northern France and Belgium, repay debts to Britain and the USA, and punish Germany.
France suggested $220 billion in reparations, $100 billion more than Britain proposed.
What measures did France advocate to weaken Germany militarily?
Limit Germany’s military capabilities.
Form a military alliance with Britain and the USA to counter future German aggression.
What were the economic consequences of the war?
Starvation and famine across Europe.
Nations incurred massive debts, with France owing $3.5 billion to Britain and the USA.
Germany faced heavy reparations payments.
How did the war affect women’s roles?
Women took over many traditionally male jobs during the war, gaining new responsibilities and independence.
Their contributions to the war effort led to increased advocacy for women's suffrage in many countries.
How did Britain and France differ in their views on German reparations?
Britain: High reparations to limit German military but economic recovery to stabilize trade.
France: Massive reparations to rebuild and punish Germany severely.
Why was the League of Nations significant in Wilson’s plan?
It aimed to prevent future wars by promoting negotiation and international cooperation.
Why did Italy leave the Triple Alliance at the start of WWI?
Italy viewed the Alliance as defensive, not offensive, and the idea of joining the war was unpopular domestically.
When was the Treaty of London?
1915
What was promised to Italy in the Treaty of London (1915)?
Tyrol up to the Brenner Pass.
Trieste and the Istrian peninsula.
Dalmatian coast and Dodecanese islands.
Albanian port of Vlorë and partial control over Albania.
Parts of German colonies in Asia and Africa.
What were Italy’s broader territorial and imperial expectations?
Expected parts of the Ottoman Empire.
Sought the deep-water port of Fiume.
Demanded reparations for war damages.
What recognition did Japan seek during the peace talks?
Dominant position in China.
Possession of former German territories in China and the Pacific.
What was Japan’s racial equality proposal?
Aimed to include a racial equality clause in the League of Nations covenant to protect Japanese immigrants in the USA.
USA, Britain, and Australia objected to this, so it was not included.
What key issues needed resolution at the Paris Peace Conference (1919-1920)?
Treatment of Germany, including reparations, disarmament, and war guilt.
Collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and formation of new countries.
Division of the Ottoman Empire and resolving Middle East conflicts.
Calls from non-European states for an end to colonialism and racial equality.
What happened to Germany’s colonies under the Treaty of Versailles?
Colonies placed under League of Nations supervision.
Britain, France, and Dominions like Australia and South Africa received mandates.
Japan secured Pacific territories.
What was the Saar Basin compromise?
Coal mines given to France for 15 years.
The region governed by the League of Nations.
After 15 years, a plebiscite determined if it would return to Germany.
How was the Rhineland issue resolved?
Divided into three zones for staged Allied evacuation over 15 years.
Permanently demilitarized afterward.
France gained an Anglo-American guarantee against German aggression.
What did Article 231 state?
“Germany accepts the responsibility… for causing all the loss and damage.”
How much was Germany initially required to pay in reparations?
20 billion gold marks as an interim payment.
Raise an additional 60 billion through loans.
How were reparations divided among Allied nations?
France: 50%.
Britain: 25%.
Belgium: Remaining funds, including full reimbursement for war expenses.
What were the key territorial changes for Germany?
Alsace-Lorraine returned to France.
Schleswig held a plebiscite, with Danish areas returned to Denmark.
Territories like Eupen and Malmedy granted to Belgium.
Why was the return of Alsace-Lorraine significant?
It had been annexed by Germany in 1871 but returned to France after the November 1918 armistice.
How did the Austro-Hungarian Empire's collapse reshape Europe?
Formation of new nations like Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia.
What challenges arose from the Ottoman Empire’s collapse?
Dividing Middle Eastern territories among Allies.
Balancing Arab and Jewish interests.
When was the draft treaty handed to the Germans?
7 May 1919
What was the initial German government reaction to the draft treaty on 7 May 1919?
The chancellor resigned.
The president asked the army if it could resist an Allied invasion.
Germany worked for concessions while criticizing the treaty for not aligning with Wilson’s Fourteen Points.
What were the key demands made by the German government?
Immediate League of Nations membership.
Plebiscites for ethnic Germans in the Sudetenland and areas granted to Poland.
Neutral commission to review war guilt.
No German territory occupied by foreign troops.
What concession did the Allies make to Germany?
A plebiscite was agreed for Upper Silesia, and Article 431 promised consideration of ending Rhineland occupation if Germany fulfilled treaty obligations.
When was the Treaty of Versailles signed?
28 June 1919
How did Germans refer to the Treaty of Versailles, and why?
Called it a diktat (dictated peace) as they were forced to accept terms they viewed as unfair and humiliating.
What was the reaction to the war guilt clause?
Hated it for blaming Germany solely for WWI.
Felt all nations shared responsibility.
Seen as particularly unfair to the struggling Weimar Republic.
Why did Germans view the territorial changes as unfair?
Plebiscites allowed in northern Schleswig but denied to Germans in Austria and the Sudetenland.
Many German-speaking people were placed under non-German rule.
How did disarmament impact Germany?
An army of 100,000 was seen as insufficient for a country of its size.
Germany resented that other European powers failed to disarm.
What economic challenges did the treaty cause for Germany?
Reparations and loss of coal and iron resources crippled the economy.
Contributed to hyperinflation during the Great Depression.
What did Britain think of the Treaty of Versailles?
Felt the reparations were too harsh and “immoral.”
Supported the restoration of Poland’s independence.
Quote (Lloyd George): “The terms are, in many respects, terrible terms to impose upon a country… I am glad the Treaty has reknit the torn flag of Poland.”
Why did the US Senate reject the Treaty of Versailles?
Opposition to joining the League of Nations and being obligated to defend other countries.
Resented Japan keeping the Shantung Peninsula, fearing it would challenge US trade in China.
Frustration with France and Britain expanding their empires instead of fostering democracy.
What happened to the Anglo-American Guarantee due to US rejection?
The guarantee to protect France in case of German aggression collapsed.
When did the USA sign a separate treaty with the Central Powers?
July 1921
How many separate treaties were signed to settle Eastern and South-Eastern Europe, and what were they?
Four treaties:
Treaty of St Germain (Austria, 1919)
Treaty of Trianon (Hungary, 1920)
Treaty of Neuilly (Bulgaria, 1919)
Treaty of Sèvres (Turkey, 1920; revised as the Treaty of Lausanne, 1923).
What territorial losses did Austria face under the Treaty of St Germain?
Bohemia and Moravia to Czechoslovakia.
Dalmatia, Bosnia, and Herzegovina to Yugoslavia.
Galicia to Poland.
South Tyrol, Trentino, and Istria to Italy.
Statistic: Austria lost 75% of its pre-war area and 80% of its pre-war population.
What were Austria’s military and economic conditions after the treaty?
Army reduced to 30,000 men.
Reparations required but never fully paid due to economic collapse by 1922.
Austria’s financial affairs were taken over by the League of Nations.
What nickname was given to post-treaty Austria, and why?
Called the ‘tadpole state’ due to its small, landlocked shape.
What territorial losses did Hungary suffer under the Treaty of Trianon?
Slovakia and Ruthenia to Czechoslovakia.
Croatia and Slovenia to Yugoslavia.
Transylvania and Banat of Temesvar to Romania.
Statistic: Hungary lost 75% of its pre-war territory and 66% of its pre-war population.
How did Hungary’s military and population suffer?
Army reduced to 35,000 men.
Over 3 million Magyars were placed under foreign rule.
What was Hungary’s reaction to the treaty?
Bitterly resented territorial losses, particularly Transylvania.
Felt the treaty created a much smaller, weaker Hungary.
What territorial changes were imposed on Bulgaria?
Lost land to Greece and Yugoslavia.
Lost Aegean coastline, losing access to the Mediterranean.
Gained some land from Turkey.
What were Bulgaria’s disarmament and reparations terms?
Army reduced to 20,000 men.
Reparations were 75% remitted due to economic hardship.
What were the territorial losses for the Ottoman Empire under the Treaty of Sèvres?
Syria to France.
Palestine, Iraq, Transjordan, and Cyprus to Britain.
Eastern Thrace to Greece.
Rhodes and the Dodecanese Islands to Italy.
What were the key terms for the Straits?
The Straits were demilitarized and placed under League of Nations administration, with troops from Britain, France, and Italy stationed there.
How did the Treaty of Lausanne revise the Treaty of Sèvres?
Turkey regained Eastern Thrace, Smyrna, and parts of the Syrian border.
Turkish sovereignty over the Straits was recognized but remained demilitarized.
Foreign troops withdrew, and reparations and military reductions were abolished.
What caused the revision from Sèvres to Lausanne?
Nationalist leader Mustapha Kemal rejected the treaty and led the fight to unify Turkey.
Greek-Turkish War (1920–1922) and Kemal’s victory over Greece.
Why was it difficult to apply the principle of self-determination in Eastern Europe?
To create defensible borders, states like Czechoslovakia received regions (e.g., Sudetenland) with large non-native populations, creating racial tensions.
Czechoslovakia had five main racial groups: Czechs, Poles, Magyars, Ruthenians, and German speakers.
How did the treaties create political and economic instability?
Weak new states like Austria and Hungary faced economic collapse by 1922.
Weaknesses created a power vacuum, later exploited by Nazi Germany.
What bitterness did the treaties cause?
Hungary resented territorial losses.
Italy called the settlement a ‘mutilated peace’, unhappy over not receiving the Dalmatian coast.
Turkey rejected Sèvres and revised it through war.
What was the November Revolution, and what were its two sources?
The November Revolution (1918) arose:
From above: Government and military leaders initiated changes, seeking armistice and reform.
From below: Widespread unrest among regular citizens, including strikes and protests.
What were the political outcomes of the November Revolution in Germany?
Kaiser Wilhelm II was exiled to the Netherlands.
Socialist leader Friedrich Ebert became the first President of the Weimar Republic.
What characterized Germany’s Weimar Republic?
Weimar Constitution (1919): Established a democratic government.
SDP (Social Democrats) dominated early Reichstag coalitions with Zentrum, DVP, and DDP.
What challenges did Germany face during the Years of Crisis (1919–1923)?
Economic: Hyperinflation peaked in 1923.
Political: Weak coalitions and instability.
Revolutionary: Left-wing Spartacist uprising aimed to establish a communist regime, and the right-wing Kapp Putsch challenged the government.
What were the two revolutions in Russia during WW1, and what did they achieve?
February Revolution (1917): Overthrew Tsar Nicholas II.
October Revolution (1917): Bolsheviks overthrew the liberal government and established a communist regime.
What was the outcome of the Russian Civil War (1918–1922)?
The Bolsheviks (Red Army) defeated the Whites (monarchists and anti-communists).
Secured communist control of Russia.
What were the consequences of WW1 for the Ottoman Empire?
Sultanate collapsed in 1922, replaced by Mustapha Kemal’s rule.
Severe territorial losses under the Treaty of Sèvres (1920), including lands to Greece and mandates for Britain and France.
How did Mustapha Kemal (Atatürk) revise the Treaty of Sèvres?
Renegotiated through the Treaty of Lausanne (1923), regaining Eastern Thrace and other territories.
Established modern Turkish nationalism.
He was called “Father of the Turks” for uniting Turkey and modernizing its institutions.
What happened to Austria-Hungary after WW1?
The empire collapsed, and Austria and Hungary became separate states.
Habsburg rule ended with Emperor Karl I’s abdication in November 1918.
What new nations emerged from Austria-Hungary? What challenges did the new nations face?
Examples include Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and Poland.
Economic vulnerability and political instability.
Seen as “created out of nowhere,” making them fragile against external threats.
How did WW1 shape France’s political landscape?
Initially dominated by the Moderate Conservative National Bloc (1918–1924), promoting nationalism and anti-communism.
Shifted to a Left Coalition after the Occupation of the Ruhr (1923).
How did France rebuild after WW1?
Despite debts and rationing, France revived its economy in the 1920s.
Companies like Citroën helped economic recovery.
A weak currency improved exports by making French goods cheaper.
What fears shaped Britain’s domestic and foreign policy after WW1?
Fear of communism, epitomized by:
Zinoviev Letter (1924) accusing Labour of ties to communism.
General Strike (1926) over wage cuts.
Led to appeasement in the 1930s, viewing Hitler as a bulwark against communism.
How did the USA emerge after WW1?
Entered the Roaring Twenties: Economic prosperity and global trade dominance.
Refused to join the League of Nations, reflecting isolationist sentiment.
What was the Red Scare in the USA?
A fear of communism marked by:
May Day riots and mail bombings.
Palmer Raids to arrest suspected communists.
Trials like the Sacco and Vanzetti case reflected anti-communist hysteria.
How was Japan affected politically after WW1?
Racial equality clause was rejected at the League of Nations, frustrating Japan.
Anti-immigration laws (e.g., USA, 1924) exacerbated tensions.
What gains did Japan make after WW1?
Acquired Pacific islands and the German lease on Shandong.
Led moderate politics and joined the League of Nations Council.
How did WW1 affect Britain's global economic position?
Britain never regained pre-WWI economic power, as the USA gained many of its old markets during the war.
40% of British merchant shipping was lost during the war.
How much did WW1 cost Britain, and how did it manage its debt?
War cost: $34 billion USD.
Nearly ⅓ of the Treasury was spent on debt repayment during the 1920s, mostly to the USA.
By 1931, Britain still owed the US $4,368 million in loans.
How much debt did France owe to the USA post-WW1, and how was it managed?
Total debt: $4,230 million USD by 1925.
Mellon–Berenger Agreement (1926) reduced repayments and made them easier but was deeply unpopular.
20,000 war veterans demonstrated in Paris, believing France shouldn’t have to pay.
What was the impact of WW1 on French agriculture and industry?
2 million hectares of farms were destroyed.
Factories and railway lines along the Western Front were ruined, leading France to demand massive reparations from Germany.
How did WW1 affect the US economy?
Entered the Roaring Twenties, with an economic boom fueled by military production and loans.
Many WW1 loans to other nations were either unpaid or only partially repaid.
What economic challenges did Russia face post-WW1 and revolution?
Civil War caused instability and the loss of Ukraine, a major resource hub.
Bolshevik nationalization policies led to famine and severe economic hardship.
Production returned to pre-war levels by 1928 after transitioning to a mixed economy.
What was the economic impact of WW1 on Belgium?
Factories and railway lines along the Western Front were ruined, severely disrupting industrial and transportation infrastructure.
How much was Germany’s reparations bill, and how was it distributed?
Reparations: 132 billion gold marks.
Distribution:
52% to France.
22% to Britain.
10% to Italy.
8% to Belgium.
Why were the new countries from Austria-Hungary economically fragile?
Austria lacked agriculture and industry.
Both Austria and Hungary relied on League of Nations loans to stabilize their economies.
How many soldiers were killed during WW1?
9 million (15%)
20% of those between the age 20-14 were killed, loss of a ‘generation’
German losses were the highest (2 million)
How many soldiers lost limbs, and what were the consequences of such?
41000; new prosthethic masks/limbs were created for those injured
What major outbreak broke out after WW1?
Spanish influenza (1918)
20 million deaths worldwide
What were the change in women’s roles after the war?
In 1918, British and German women gained the vote
Despite the major involvement of women during the war, women’s employment quickly reutnred to pre-war levels, with some liberation of culture and fashion
What were some examples of changes in women’s roles and status in Britain and Germany?
Women in Britain:
estimated 2 million women in workforce
buses, trains, banks, post offices
women’s land army enabled many in agriculture
worked in the munitions factories
100,000 were employed in non combat roles
women’s royal navy service
women’s royal air force
~100 served as nurses
the Representation of the People Act (1918) extended the vote to women 30 and over who met minimum property qualifications
the Representation of the People Act (1928) saw women gaining voting equity with men
Women in Germany:
46% increase in workforce (3.5 million)
replaced men in the steelworks and mnes
700,000 in the munitions industry by 1918
women gained the vote in 1919 due to Weimar Constitution
considered it less a reward than the collapse of monarchial and military rule
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