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Principles of Attraction
- Proximity
- Similarity
- Complementarity
Principles of Selection
- Asset
- Complementarity
Principles of Attrition
- Noticing differences
- Nonconformity
Group
A collective of people that have goals, interdependent relationships, interactions, structured relations, and mutual influence.
- More inclusive term
- Range in size from 2 to thousands
- E.g., political parties, families
Team
- Members work interdependently to accomplish goals and have the power to control at least part of their organization.
- Structured groups of people working on defined common goals that require coordinated interaction to achieve certain tasks.
- 3-12 people
- Interact directly
- Sports or work settings
- Part of larger organizations
- Members with specialized knowledge, skills, and abilities
- Assigned roles
Goal Orientation
People joining together for some purpose and to achieve some goal
Interdependent
People who have some type of relationship, see connection among themselves, or believe they share a common fate
Interpersonal interaction
People who communicate and interact with one another
Perception of membership
Recognition that there is a collective to which one belongs
Structured relations
Roles, rules, and norms that control people's interactions
Mutual influence
Impact people have on one another because of their connections
Individual motivation
Satisfaction of personal needs through membership in the group
Foundations of Teamwork
- Industrial revolution
- Scientific management
- Hawthorne Studies
- Focus on quality launched current interest
Hawthorne Studies
Social factors impact performance
Important issues of changing teams
- Dynamic Composition
- Technology and Distance
- Empowerment and Delayering
Current movements in psychology affecting the study of teamwork
- Diversity and Multiculturalism
- Positive Psychology
Foundations of Group Dynamics
- Social facilitation (Triplett)
- Group dynamics (Kurt Lewin)
- Action research (Kurt Lewin)
- Social change (Kurt Lewin)
- Interdisciplinary; Equifinality
Triplett bicycle study
with a group you go faster because more accountable and push yourself
Equifinality
many paths to an end, team success
Kurt Lewin
study the effect of changes in groups
Production team
manufacture or assemble products
Service team
repeated transactions with customers
Project team
experts to perform task in defined period (engineers building a project)
Action Team
engage in repeated brief performances; require specialized skills (sports team)
Parallel Team
advisory committees
Types of Teams
- Production
- Service
- Management
- Project
- Action
- Parallel
Skill differentiation
Degree of specialized knowledge or functional capacities
Authority differentiation
Degree of decision-making responsibility
Temporal stability
Degree of working together in the past and in the future
Hackman's three primary definitions of success
- The task
- Social relations
- The Individual
Effective teams
- Organize themselves to perform tasks
- Develop social relations to support their operations
- Assign leaders to provide direction and facilitate team operations
Two types of activities for group processes
- Making decisions
- Performing tasks
McGrath Characteristics of the task
- Generate
- Choose
- Negotiate
- Execute
Additive tasks
adding together team members' efforts
Conjunctive tasks
each team member completes their parts
Compensatory
support given to the worst performer
Disjunctive
selecting a single solution
Steiner's ways efforts can be combined
- Added together
- Limited by last member
- Averaged
- Selected
- Combined
Tasks should be
Motivating, identifiable, meaningful
When are tasks appropriate
1. work contains some skilled activities
2. team can form a meaningful unit with the organization (w/ clearly defined input and output & boundaries)
3. turnover is minimal
4. performance evals exist
5. timely feedback is possible
6. capable of measuring & controlling variances in workflow
7. tasks are interdependent so members work together
8. cross-training is supported by management
9. jobs designed to balance team and individual tasks
Traditional models of team success
- Focus on task performance
- Social relations and individual development are support factors
Positive psychology
- starts with team member well-being
- Teamwork should fulfill members' emotional and social needs
- Successful performance follows when members are engaged and supported
Forming
Orientation: members getting to know one another
Storming
Conflict: disagreement about roles and procedures
Norming
Structure: establishment of rules and social relationships
Performing
Work: focus on completing the task
Adjourning
Dissolution: completion of task and end of the group
Project Development Perspective
- Based on characteristics of projects
- McGrath (1990): How project teams operate over time
- New product teams (Ancona & Caldwell,1990): Based on changing nature of the task
McGrath studies on How project teams operate over time
- Inception
- Problem solving
- Conflict resolution
- Execution
New product teams studies by Ancona & Caldwell
- Based on changing nature of the task
- Creation
- Development
- Diffusion
Cyclical Perspective
- Marks, Mathieu, and Zacarro studies on recurring phases
- Gersick studies on punctuated equilibrium
Punctuated equilibrium
teams may experience an extended period of low activity followed by bursts of energy and change
Marks, Mathieu, and Zacarro on recurring phases
- Temporal cycles that create a rhythm for a team
- Action, interpersonal, and transition cycles
Implications of Team Development Stages
- Stage theories do not always apply
- Emotional highs/lows are normal
- Developing the team is important
- Times of lower task performance are normal
Socialization
Process by which a person becomes a member of the group
Stages of Socialzation
- Investigation
- Socialization
- Maintenance
Maintenance
on going role negotiation
Flash teams
teams that are temporarily together (emergency rescue crew, airline crew)
If teams are constantly changing:
Focus on team roles rather than team members
Team goals
"a desirable state of affairs members intend to bring about through combined efforts" (Zander, 1994)
Functions of Team goals
1. Serve as standard to evaluate performance
2. Motivate members by encouraging involvement in the task
3. Guide the team toward activities and encourage integration of team members' task
4. Provide a criterion for evaluating if actions and decision are appropriate
5. Serve as a way to inform outside groups about the team
6. Determine when members should be rewarded or punished
Types of Hidden agendas
- Motivation-based
- Direction-based
Motivation-based hidden agenda
social loafing, hidden agenda they would rather be doing something else
Direction-based hidden agenda
malice behind hidden agenda, vying for more power, or getting money to another. department
Team Norms
- Ground rules that define appropriate and inappropriate behavior in a team
Types of Norms
- Implicit
- Explicit
Implicit norms
known, pre-established norms
Explicit norms
norms established by the group
Functions of Team Norms
- Express central values
- Help coordinate activities
- Define appropriate behavior
- Create distinctive identity
How Norms are Formed
Usually unconscious and gradual over time
Norm forming is based on
- Past teams
- outside standards
- early team behavior
The Dark Side of Team Norms
- Enforce conformity
Social Loafing
- Free riders
- Sucker effect
Contributing Factors to Social Loafing
- No need for coordination of efforts
- Individual performance unaccounted for
- Unaware of others' efforts
Free rider
someone banking on others work
Sucker effect
high performers slaking off to make up for having to put in so much work
Tactics to Increase Team Motivation
- Assigning Tasks
- Implementing Evaluations and Rewards
- Team Efficacy
- Team potency
- Commitment and Cohesion
Job Characteristic Model
- Experienced meaningfulness
- Responsibility for outcomes
- Knowledge of results
Team Efficacy
performing well at a given task
Team potency
capability to perform well across various tasks
Group cohesion
interpersonal bonds that hold a team together
Role Problems
- Role ambiguity
- Role conflict
Role conflict leads to
- Stress
- Decreased satisfaction and morale
- Increased turnover
- Decreased participation
Solutions to Role Problems
- Make important roles explicit
- Prioritize tasks
Task Behaviors
Information sharing and behavioral assistance
Social Behaviors
Social recognition and encouragement
Balance of Task and Social Behaviors depends on
- Characteristics of team
- Maturity level of team
- Nature of task
Transactive memory
- Awareness of knowledge possessed by team members
- Benefits coordination and problem-solving
Shared mental models
- Related to the task and how team operates
- Be sure to consider accuracy and degree of agreement
Training the Team Together
- Develops mental model and transactive memory
- Creates a supportive team climate for new skills performance
Factors affecting transfer of training
- Training environment
- Time lag
- Cues
- Supervisor support
Strategies that encourage transfer of training
- Practice and feedback
- Supervisor support
- Supportive team climate
Cross-Training and Interpositional Training
- Pay for skills program
- On-the-job training
- Leads to shared mental models
Types of Cross-Training and Interpositional Training
- Positional clarification
- Positional modeling
- Positional rotation
Successful Team-Building programs should improve
- Communication
- Satisfaction
- Cohesion
Success of Team-Building programs depends on
- Support of top management
- Organizational rewards
- Time
Criteria and effectiveness of specific programs
- Cognitive (knowledge of teamwork)
- Affective (trust and team potency)
- Team process (coordination and communication)
- Performance
Cognitive
- knowledge of teamwork
- Goal-setting and role-clarification
Affective
- trust and team potency
Team process
- coordination and communication
- Goal-setting and role-clarification
