ap psych unit 5

cognition

Mental activities and processes associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating info.

concept

mental grouping of similar objects, events, states, ideas, and people.

• form from definitions and prototypes.

meta cognition

awareness and control of ones own cognitive process

• thinking about thinking and reflecting on learning. 

trial and error

involves trying various possible solutions, and if that fails, trying others.

• useful perfecting an invention

• fails when there is a clear solution

algorithms

step-by-step procedures for solving problems that guarantee a solution if followed correctly.

• take a long time but guarentee a solution

• looking at every product in a store

heuristics

mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that simplify decision making and problem solving

• quicker but might lead to error and bias

insight

a sudden realization moment, a leap forward in thinking that leads to a solution

• aha! moment

confirmation bias

seeking info that conforms our current thinking

• not bothering to seek contradicting info

fixation/mental set

stuck thinking/thinking stuck with previoussolutions or strategies, hindering problem solving. This can lead to an inability to see alternative perspectives or methods.

• approach problem in 1 way

schema

a cognitive framework that helps organize and interpret information, shaping how we understand and interact with the world.

assimilation

the process of incorporating new experiences into existing schemas, enabling individuals to understand new information without changing their framework.

accommoodation

the process of changing existing schemas or creating new ones to incorporate new information, allowing for a more accurate understanding of experiences.

functional fixedness

cant think of an object beyond its traditional use, hindering problem-solving.

executive functions

cognitive processes that manage and regulate other cognitive processes, including planning, decision-making, and impulse control.

• control behavior 

• enable goal directed actions

intuition

quick acting, automatic source of ideas without analytical reasoning or conscious thought.

representitiveness heuristics

mental shortcuts used to judge the likelihood of events based on how well they match a prototype.

• stereotypes

availability heuristics

mental shortcuts that rely on immediate examples that come to mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method, or decision.

• memory availability

• This can lead to biased judgments based on recent experiences or vivid information.

priming

the activation of certain associations in memory, often unconsciously, which can influence subsequent perception and behavior.

nudge

a subtle intervention that influences behavior and decision-making without restricting options.

gamblers fallacy

the belief that past random/ independent events affect the probabilities of future random events, leading to misconceptions about chance.

sunk cost fallacy

continuing endeavors due to past investment of time, money and effort, even if it's proven a bad choice.

overconfidence

the tendency to overestimate one's own abilities, knowledge, or the accuracy of one's beliefs.

• more confident than correct

belief perserverance 

the tendency to maintain or hold onto a belief despite evidence that contradicts it.

framing

the way information/issue is presented, which can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

phonemes

the smallest units of sound in a language that distinguish meaning.

• 40 in english, 869 in all languages

• "jam" has 3

• "shell" has 3

morpheme

the smallest meaningful unit of language, which can be a word or part of a word, such as a prefix or suffix.

• crocodile has 1

• desirability has 3

grammar

the system of rules that governs the structure of sentences in a language

semantics

how sounds convey meaning

and how words and phrases contribute to understanding in language.

syntax

how the order of words makes meaning in sentences and phrases. 

language

a system of symbols and rules used for communication and expression.

• consists of phonemes, morphemes, syntax, semantics.

creativity

the ability to produce original and valuable ideas or solutions, often involving imagination and problem-solving.

convergent thinking

the cognitive process of bringing multiple ideas together to find a single, correct answer or solution.

• NARROWING TO 1

divergent thinking

the cognitive process of generating multiple ideas or solutions to a problem, emphasizing creativity and open-endedness.

• diverges in different directions

• EXPANDS the number of solutions

universal grammar

innate/biologically based ability to learn language

• all languages share a universal underlying structure

• Noam Chomsky

critical periods

• language will never develop of not by age 7

• very important to begin language exposure very early

• beginning a language later in life makes it harder to learn pronounciation and grammar

receptive language

the ability to understand and process spoken/written language input before being able to produce it.

• happens before productive

• happens around 4 months old

productive language

the ability to produce and articulate words and sentences while communicating

• typically developing after receptive language

• often around 12 months of age.

cooing

VOWEL sounds a baby makes

• stage of productive language

babbling

consonants and vowel sounds babies make (spontaneously)

• 4-6 months old

• dadadada

• unrelated to household language

one word stage

children express complete ideas using single words

• typically occurring around 12-18 months of age.

two word stage

children combine two words to convey meaning

• typically occurring around 18-24 months of age.

telegraphic speech

early speech stage where children use short, simple sentences that convey the essential meaning

• typically around 2 years of age.

• nouns and verbs

• "go car"

overgeneralization

cognitive disorder of too much conclusion drawing

• negative thinking is caused

psychometrics

scientific study of human ability, attitudes, and traits.

• It involves measuring psychological constructs using standardized tests and assessments.

aphasia

a language disorder affecting speech and comprehension typically caused by brain injury or damage.

brocas area/brocas aphasia

a region in the frontal lobe associated with speech production.

• Broca's aphasia results in difficulty with speech fluency while comprehension remains relatively intact.

• more treatable

wernikes area/wernikes area aphasia

a region in the left temporal lobe involved in language comprehension.

• Wernicke's aphasia is characterized by impaired understanding and the production of nonsensical speech.

linguistic determinism

the theory that language structure influences how individuals perceive and think about the world.

• benjamin whorf

linguistic relatism

the idea that language influences thought processes and perceptions, but does not completely determine them.

• weaker version of linguistic determinism.

bilingual advantage

• more neural connection networks

• more executive control like resisting distraction bc they surpress one language while learning another.

intelligence

the ability to learn, reason, solve problems, and adapt to new situations using knowledge.

general iltelligence/ g

only one kind of intelligencethat underlies all cognitive abilities, influencing overall performance across various tasks.

• charels spearman used factor analysisto identify this general intelligence factor.

7 clusters within g

verbal comprehension, inductive reasoning, spatial visualization, memory, perceptual speed, numerical ability, and word fluency.

• thurstones theory

factor analysis

a statistical method used to identify relationships between variables and reduce data into underlying factors to make connections.

Catell horn caroll / chc theory

fluid and crystalized intelligences 

fluid intelligence

refers to ability to think quickly and abstractly

• more young ppl

• gf

crystalized intelligence

refers to accumulated knowledge and skills gained over time, generally improving with age.

• more old ppl

• gc

savant syndrome

A condition in which a person with a developmental disability demonstrates profound and prodigious capacities in a specific area, such as music, art, or calculation, often alongside significant limitations in other areas.

multiple intelligences

theory proposed by Howard Gardner that suggests individuals have different kinds of intelligences

• linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, and interpersonal, intrapersonal, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, naturalistic.

sterbergs triarchic theory

theory of intelligence that includes three aspects: analytical, creative, and practical.

practical intelligence

the ability to solve everyday problems by utilizing knowledge gained from experience.

creative ingelligence

the ability to generate novel ideas and solutions in various contexts and create new things.

analytical intelligence

the capacity to analyze, evaluate, and compare information to solve complex problems and make informed decisions.

• book/ school smart

• right answer problems

social intelligence

the ability to understand and manage social interactions and relationships, recognizing social cues and responding appropriately.

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions.

perceiving emotions

is the ability to recognize and identify emotions in oneself and others, which is crucial for effective communication and personal relationships.

• facial expressions, stories, etc.

understanding emotions

is the skill of comprehending emotional experiences, allowing individuals to empathize with others and respond to their feelings effectively.

• predicting states and changes in self and others

managing emotions

modulating and expressing emotions in various situations

using emotions

using emotions as fuel and motivation for creative and adaptive thinking. 

benefit of emotional intelligence

can delay gratification when pursing long term goals.

10 year rule

the idea that achieving expert-level performance in a field typically requires about 10,000 hours of practice.

intelligence test

method for assessing mental aptitudes to compare to others

• uses numerical scores

achievement tests

assess knowledge or skills in specific subjects or what someone has learned

• school math test

aptitude tests

predict ability to learn

• sat/act

alfred binet

French psychologist who developed the first widely used intelligence test

• had task of designing a fair test

mental age

a measure of intelligence based on the average age at which individuals achieve specific scores on an intelligence test.

• binet and theodore simon

• low mental age = delayed, not disabled

lewis terman

American psychologist who adapted Binet's intelligence test for use in the United States, introducing the concept of IQ.

stanford-binet

an intelligence test developed by Lewis Terman, based on Binet's original test, used to measure a person's IQ.

iq

intelligence quotient

mental age/ chronilogical age times 100

william stern

WAIS

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, an intelligence test designed to assess adult cognitive ability.

• verbal and performance subtests that produces an overall IQ score as well as separate scores for verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed.

eugenics

a controversial movement aimed at improving the genetic quality of the human population, often through selective breeding and sterilization.

• see what race or group is the most intelligent, and those are the ones who should reproduce.

cross sectional study

A research design that compares individuals from different age groups at the same time to draw conclusions about age-related differences.

• taking some 10 year olds, some 20 year olds, etc

longitudinal study

A research design that follows the same group of individuals over an extended period

• observe changes and developments across time.

standardization

The process of establishing consistent testing procedures and norms to ensure reliability and validity in psychological assessments.

• uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores to compare

normal curve

graphical curve (shaped like a bell) that tells us many types of data

• 68% within 1 sd from the mean, 95% within 2

• symmetrical

flynn effect

Observed increase in IQ scores over generations, attributed to environmental factors.

• average height has increased…?

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results

• assessed by 2 halves consistancy, alternate forms of the test, and retesting

validity

the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.

content validity

the degree to which a test samples the content it is designed to assess.

• drivers test assessing driving ability

predictive validity

the extent to which a test accurately forecasts future performance or behavior.

• assessed by computing test score correlation with future outcomes, such as test scores predicting academic success.

construct validity

the degree to which a test measures the theoretical concept it claims to measure. It evaluates how well a test aligns with theories and concepts related to the trait in question.

test retest reliability

the consistency of test scores when the same test is administered to the SAME GROUP on different occasions. It assesses whether a test produces stable and consistent results over time.

split half reliability

the degree to which different parts of the same test yield similar results, ensuring consistency across its items. 

• assessed by comparing scores from two halves of the test.

intellectual disability

a developmental disorder characterized by significant limitations in both intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior, affecting daily living.

down syndrome

a genetic disorder caused by the presence of an extra 21st chromosome

• leading to intellectual disabilities and physical abnormalities.

gifted

individuals who demonstrate outstanding levels of aptitude or competence in ONE OR MORE AREAS, such as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacities.

heritability

the proportion of variation in a trait that can be attributed to genetic factors within a population.

• trait heritabiloty varies

twin studies

research involving comparison of similarities and differences between identical and fraternal twins to understand the role of genetics and environment in behavior.

• for intelligence, stronger nature vs nurture

• measures nature vs nurture

growth mindset

the belief that abilities and intelligence can be developed through dedication and hard work, fostering a love for learning and resilience.

• not a fixed trait

• carol dweck!!!!

fixed mindset

the belief that abilities and intelligence are static and unchangeable, often leading to a fear of failure and avoidance of challenges.