An approach focussing on the large-scale social structures in which people play defined roles
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Macro approaches
focus on the large scale of whole societies
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Micro approaches
Focuses on small scale interaction
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Correlation
When two variables are related to each other but causation cannot be proved
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Causation
Where a strict link can be proved between variables in a time sequence: such as
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Interpretivism
Approaches that start at the level of the individual
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Identity
How a person sees themselves and how others see them
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Perspectives
Ways of viewing social life from different points of view
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Consensus
Basic agreement on a set of shared values
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Conflict
Disagreement between groups with different interests
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Positivism
An approach to sociology based on studying society in a scientific manner
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Quantitative Data
Information of facts taken in numerical form
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Bias
Prejudice that distorts the truth when research is influenced by the values of the researcher or by the decisions taken about then research
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Objectivity
Absence of bias
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Hypothesis
A theory or explanation of the start of research that the research is designed to test
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Pilot Study
A small scale test of a piece of research projects before the main research
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Survey Population
All those to whom the study will apply and form which a sample is chosen
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Sampling Frame
A list of members of the population from which the sample is chosen
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Generalisability
When the findings about a sample can be said to apply to a larger group of people sharing their characteristics
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Random Sampling
When each person has an equal chance of being selected
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Stratified Sampling
When the sample frame is divided
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Quota Sampling
Deciding in advance how many people with what characteristics involve in the research and then identifying one
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Snowball Sampling
When one respondent puts the researcher in contact with others
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Sampling Methods
The different ways in which samples can be created
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Ethical Issues
Issues that have a moral dimension such as when harm or distress may be caused to the participants
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Questionnaires
A standardised list of questions used in social surveys
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Social Surveys
The systematic collection of information from a sample
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Open Questions
Respondents can reply freely in their own words to give their response
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Closed/Pre-coded Questions
Questions where the researcher has set out which response can be recorded
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Respondent
Someone who provides information to researchers
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Qualitative Data
Information and facts ( like attitudes or kinds of actions) that are not able to be recorded in numerical form
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Self Completion Questionnaires
Questionnaires that are completed by the respondent on their own
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Postal Questionnaires
Self-completion questionnaires that's are sent out and returned by post
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Response Rate
The proportion of responses obtained out of a sample
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Structured Interview
An interview in which the questions are standardised ( the same questions asked in the same order) and the replied codified to produce qualitative data
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Telephone Questionnaires
When the researcher reads the questions to a respondent over the telephone and records their answers
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Reliability
When the research can be repeated and similar responses will be obtained
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Validity
When the findings accurately reflect the reality that is intended to capture
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Unstructured Interview
An interview without set questions that usually involves probing into emotions and attitudes
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Semi-structured Interview
An interview with some standardised questions but allowing the researcher some flexibility on what is asked in what order
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Focus group
A group bought together to be interviewed on a particular topic (the focus): a special type of group interview
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Group interview
Any interview involving a group interviewed together
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Interviewer Bias
Intentional or unintentional effect of the way that the interviewer asks questions or interprets answers
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Interviewer Effect
Ways in which an interviewer may influence participants responses by their characteristics or appearance or by verbal cues such as facial expressions and tone of voice
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Subjectivity
Lack of objectivity; the researcher's view influences the approach taken
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Laboratory Experiments
Experiments taking place in a laboratory
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Hawthorne or Observer Effect
The unintended effects if the researchers presence on the behaviour or respondents of participants
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Field Experiments
Experiments that take place in the natural setting of the real world rather than in a laboratory
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Case Study
A detailed
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Longitudinal Study
A survey taking place in intervals over a long period
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Overt Participation Observation
When the group being studied is aware that research is taking place and of who the researcher
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Covert Participation Observation
In such research the group being studied is unaware of the research and is deceived into thinking the researcher is a real member of the group
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Non-participant Observation
When the researcher observes a group but does not participate in what is going on
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Content Analysis
A method of studying communications and the media
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Triangulation
Use of two or more methods in the same research project
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Representativeness
The degree to which research findings about one group can be applied to a larger group or similar groups
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Primary Data
Information collected by the sociologists at first hand
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Secondary Data
Information collected earlier by others and used later
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Official Statistics
Produced by government and official agencies
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Non-official Statistics
Produced by other organisations such as charities
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Trend
A change over time in a particular direction
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Comparative Study
In research
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Historical Documents
A wide range of documents from the past used as sources if information by sociologists
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social stratification
a hierarchy in which groups have different statuses and different levels of privilege
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social class
a group of people having the same social and economic status
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age
age is a form of stratification
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status
a position that someone has in society
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power
the ability to influence people's behaviour
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industrial societies
Societies that use technology for mass production
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minority group
a category of people lacking power
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slavery
a stratification system in which one group is treated as the legal property of another group
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caste
a closed stratification system traditionally found in India
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closed society
a society in which mobility between different levels of stratification is not possible
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ascribed status
a status that is given to individuas by their society or group over which they have little or no control
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traditional societies
societies that are still predominantly agricultural and have not yet become industrial
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discrimination
when an individual or group suffers a disadvantage becasue of their characteristics
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ageism
prejudics or discrimination againt someone beased on their age
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achieved status
a status that individuals acquire through their own efforts
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life chances
the opportunities that people have to improve their lives
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human right
a wider category than civil rights
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civil rights
rights that protect the freedom of individuals
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working class
manual or blue-collar workers
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fatalism
individuals' belief that they cannot control what happens to them
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deferred gratification
being able to set long-term goals
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immediate gratification
choosing instant satisfaction rather than waiting for a greater reward in the future
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middle class
professional and other non-manual workers
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minority ethnic group
a minority group with a distinct national or cultural tradition
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social inequality
the inequality between groups in a stratification system
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wealth
money
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distribution of wealth
the way in which wealth is distributed
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income
the sum of earnings from work and other sources
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welfare state
the way in which governments try to provide for the less well off and reduce social inequality
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meritocracy
a society in which individuals achieve the level that thier talents and abilities deserve
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redistribution of wealth
advocated by Marxists and others to achieve greater equality by giving some of the wealth of the better off to those who are less wealthy
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dependency culture
A set of values leading people to lose the ability to look after themselves so they become dependent
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underclass
a group below the working class that is effectively cut off from the rest of society
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marxism
a theoretical perspective that sees conflict between classes as the most important feature of society
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equal opportunities
When all people are given the same chances (for example
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disability
covers a wide range of types of impairment in how the body functions in carrying out activities
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relative poverty
being poor in relation to others in the same society
Studied by 14 people
