Psychology 1.3-1.4-1.5, studies, longitutional studies, case studies and observations

Case study

An in-depth investigation of an individual, small group, or institution using multiple research methods.

Triangulation

Using more than one method or source of data to improve validity in a case study.

Qualitative data

Non-numerical, descriptive data often gathered through interviews and observations.

Quantitative data

Numerical data that can be measured or counted, sometimes collected in case studies.

Rich data

Detailed and in-depth information obtained from small samples.

Ecological validity (case study)

High, because case studies often investigate real-life situations.

Low generalisability

Findings from case studies may not apply to wider populations due to small or unique samples.

Subjectivity (case studies)

Interpretations may be influenced by the researcher's personal views, reducing objectivity.

Retrospective data

Information recalled from past events, which can be inaccurate or biased.

Ethical issues (case studies)

Sensitive personal information may be disclosed, requiring confidentiality and informed consent.

Observation

/A research method involving watching and recording behaviour without manipulating variables.

Naturalistic observation

Behaviour is observed in its natural environment without interference.

Controlled observation

Observation in a structured environment where some variables are controlled.

Participant observation

The observer becomes part of the group being studied.

Non-participant observation

/The observer does not engage with the group being studied.

Overt observation

Participants are aware they are being observed.

Covert observation

Participants are unaware they are being observed.

Time sampling

Behaviour is recorded at set time intervals.

Event sampling

Every occurrence of a specific behaviour is recorded during a set period.

Behavioural checklist

A list of specific behaviours the observer watches for and records.

Observer bias

When the observer’s expectations influence what is recorded or how it is interpreted.

Inter-rater reliability

The extent to which different observers record the same behaviours consistently.

Structured observation

Behaviour is recorded using a predetermined system such as checklists or coding frames.

Unstructured observation

Observer records all behaviours without a specific system, often producing qualitative data.

Coding frame

A system of categories and rules used to classify and record observed behaviours.

Reactivity

When participants change their behaviour because they know they are being observed.

Correlation

A statistical technique used to assess the relationship between two variables.

Positive correlation

As one variable increases, the other also increases.

Negative correlation

As one variable increases, the other decreases.

Zero correlation

No consistent relationship between two variables.

Correlation coefficient

A numerical value between -1 and +1 that indicates the strength and direction of a correlation.

Scatter graph

A visual representation of a correlation showing data points on two axes.

No cause-and-effect

Correlation does not imply that one variable causes the other to change.

Confounding variable

An external variable that may affect both correlated variables, potentially creating a false relationship.

Third variable problem

The possibility that a separate variable is influencing both correlated variables.

Non-directional hypothesis (correlation)

Predicts a relationship exists but does not state the direction.

Directional hypothesis (correlation)

Predicts the specific direction of a relationship between two variables.

Longitudinal study

Research that follows the same participants over an extended period.

Developmental research

A common goal of longitudinal studies, observing behavioural or cognitive changes over time.

Participant attrition

Loss of participants throughout the course of a study, which may affect validity.

High validity (longitudinal)

Long-term tracking can provide accurate insight into changes over time.

Low generalisability (longitudinal)

Small sample sizes or high attrition can limit how widely results apply.

Consistency of measures

Using the same tools or procedures at each stage to maintain reliability.

Expensive and time-consuming

Longitudinal studies require more resources than short-term research.

Repeated measures design

The same participants are tested at multiple points over time.

Maturation effect

Natural changes in participants over time that may influence the results of a longitudinal study.

Time-related validity

Whether findings remain applicable across different time periods.