US examples

Reasons why Trump chose Pence as his VP in 2016

1. Reassured the Republican establishment - spent some time in the House of Republican leadership

2. Reassured social conservatives - Pence is a Christian + a social conservative

3. Trump needed the Industrial Midwest - Pence is from there

4. Trump needed investors - Pence is close friends with the Koch brothers who are two large investors and they donated to Trump's campaign

5. Trump needed some message discipline - Pence is very disciplined (complete opposite to Trump)

National party convention deciding a parties platform example

The 2020 Democrat National Convention

- Expand access to affordable healthcare

- raise minimum wage

- tackle climate change

Kennedy vs Nixon TV debate 1960

- Kennedy was young and attractive

- Met with crew beforehand to discuss camera angles

- Wore a good coloured suit

- Nixon had injured his knew which made him look uncomfortable and his suit washed him out

studies show that 4 million voters chose their president from the TV debate - 3 million of these voted for Kennedy

Carter vs Reagan TV debate 1980

Each candidate had the opportunity to make a closing speech:

- Carters was forgettable

- Reagan's posed a series of questions with all the answers being negative towards the Democrats

Reagan was an actor before running for President so he was better on screen

Trump vs Clinton TV debate 2016

Clinton outperformed Trump in all 3 debates BUT Clinton's poll numbers only marginally moved and she still lost the election

Questions whether TV debates still matter?

Trump vs Harris TV debate 2024

Harris appears much more confident and knowledgeable compared to Trump

Trump has been seen as lacking in detail on policy initiatives

1972 October Surprise

White House announcement of 'peace is at hand' in Vietnam.

Adv: President Nixon

Dis: McGovern

1980 October Surprise

President Carter's announcement of possible imminent release of 52 American hostages held in Iran for almost a year - news quickly turned to be inaccurate.

Adv: Reagan

Dis: President Carter

2000 October Surprise

Press disclosure that Bush has paid a $150 fine for a drink driving incident in 1976.

Adv: Al Gore

Dis: Bush

2016 October Surprise

Clinton set up an email server at her home which she then used for both work and personal emails during her 4 years as secretary of state.

Never activated a state.gov email account

Adv: Trump

Dis: Clinton

Trump's use of social media

Throughout every election Trump has run he has used Twitter a lot. He used this to get effective access to the people and uses it to mock his opponents, shock the public and raise his platform

Nixon campaign finance 1972

Nixon's campaign in 1972 was funded by huge sums of money donated by 'fat cats' - wealthy and corrupt individuals.

This led to the Federal Election Campaign Act in 1974 which sought to reduce candidates reliance on few, wealthy individuals. Also aimed to equalise the amount of money spent by both major parties

Clinton campaign finance 2016

raised $1.4 billion around $800 million more than Trump and she still lost

Education levels influencing voting

In 2016 exit polls showed that 64% of Trump voters had no college degree

Situation/state of country affecting voting behaviour

The Great Depression began in 1929 under the Republican president Herbert Hoover

Led to increased unemployment rates and increased poverty

--> Republicans lost support and people lost trust for them

Ability/ideas of candidate

In 1932 election Roosevelt promised a far more interventionist government, a new deal

Built up a large coalition pf voters from many different groups of people

--> enabled Democrats to win elections well into the 1960s

Announcement of presidential candidate (Invisible primaries)

Officially announced he was running for president in June 2015

During a speech at Trump tower in New York City

Influence of media in invisible primaries

In 2016 Trump received huge media coverage despite lacking political knowledge

Fundraising in invisible primaries

Obama used online fundraising in 2008

--> raised $55 million from this

In 2020 Mike Bloomberg spent $1 billion of his own money

Money affecting election outcomes

✅Biden outspent Trump in 2020, even though the incumbent candidate usually raises more

✅In 2016 Trump donated $18 million of his own money into his campaign which helped him to win the Republican candidacy

❌Clinton raised $800 million more than Trump in 2016 and still lost

Media affecting election outcomes

✅Obama in 2008 had lots of media coverage which raised his candidate profile - wasn't very known before

❌in 2020 both Trump and Biden were well known - large sums of money spent on media (wasted?)

Issues affecting election outcomes

✅Key issue in 2004 was to handle the foreign policy after the 9/11 attacks. George W Bush was praised for his response to this ad for bringing the USA together. Helped his re-election bid in 2004.

❌When Obama won he largely didn't win because of issues at the time he won because of his leadership - didn't know how to handle and solve the economic crisis

Leadership affecting election outcomes

✅Obama was a charismatic and persuasive orator - increased votes because people saw him

✅JFK versus Nixon - speech on radio and tv made a massive difference in the polls since leadership makes a huge impression on voters

✅Trumps leadership has completely polarised the Republican party since 2016 - increased loyalty

❌Kamala Harris been unpopular since 2020 primaries - relies on attacking challenger, running mate to increase popularity

❌Clinton was not popular for working class voters as she's came from a high status

Incumbency affecting election outcomes

✅In 2020 86% of senators and 95% of House members were re-elected

✅Since 1945 only 4 presidents have failed to be re-elected

✅By contrast - 8 have been re-elected

✅Incumbents tend to do better since they have raised and spent more money - greater name and recognition

❌High re-election rates should not be taken as evidence for wider popular approval of political institutions

Pork barrelling

'Bridge to nowhere', a proposed $400 million project which would have joined a town in Alaska to Gravina Island which is home to around 50 people and an airport - didn't end up getting built

Turnout in 2020

66.8%

Turnout in 2016

54%

Franklin Roosevelt election result

won by 7 million votes

won 472 - 59 ECVs

after his new deal policies during the Great Depression

1932 election

Republicans lost because of their handling of the Great Depression (1929-1933)

Democrats (Roosevelt) won by 7 million votes = 472 - 59 ECVs

2016 election

Clinton = political insider (secretary of state before) lost her support amongst the blue collar workers ( manual workers)

Trump = political outsider

Trump picked up Iowa, Ohio, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania and Michigan

Trump won the ECV

Clinton won the popular vote

Popular vote:

Clinton - 48.2%

Trump - 46.1%

ECVs:

Clinton - 227

Trump - 304

first political outsider to win

Eisenhower in 1952

Referendums example

In 2018, one example was in Alabama where 78% of voters supported an amendment to the state constitution allowing the display of the Ten Commandments in state courthouses. In addition, around the hall of states allow groups who can collect enough signatures, the ability to demand a vote asking for an existing law to be vetoed

Recall elections example

Most high profile recall bid was in 2012 for Wisconsin's Republican governor, Scott Walker. In opposition to legislation that curtailed bargaining rights of public sector workers. Walker survived.

Last and second governor to have been removed was Gray Davis for California

Propositions/initiatives examples

- legalisation of marijuana

- same sex marriage

- expanding Medicaid

- restoring voting rights to ex-felons

Targeted advertising example

In the first 8 months of the 2019 election, Trump's team controversially posted over 2,000 Facebook ads using the term 'invasion' in relation to immigration

Targeted advertising example (UK)

In the 2019 election campaign, the main UK parties made use of gender-specific ads. E.g. among the Labour ads targeting females were three focusing on the party's policy of compensating the 'Waspi' women affected by a change in the state pension age. These ads, seen more than 3 million times collectively, were viewed exclusively by women aged 55 and over.

Importance of swing states

In 2020 despite the unique circumstances of the COVID-19 pandemic, between September and election day Biden made 40% of his campaign visits to the crucial Midwest Rust Belt states including 16 to Pennsylvania alone. Trump meanwhile, made 14 stops in Pennsylvania and 12 in Florida --> Biden won

Swing state spending

In 2024, 76% of all presidential election spending went to swing states

Result of 2018 midterms (young voters 18-21)

68% voted Democrat

Race influencing election voting

In 2020, 87% of black voters voted for Joe Biden

--> long-standing Democrat alignment

Religion influencing election voting

In 2020, 76% of evangelical Christians voted Trump

--> normally vote Republican

--> driven by issues such as abortion rights

Direct Action

Women's march in 2017 after Trump was inaugurated - promoted by Trump's policies which were seen as misogynistic and represented a threat to the rights of women

American Medical Association - pressure group

The AMA advocates for the interests of physicians, promotes public health initiatives, and influences healthcare policy to improve medical standards and healthcare access in the U.S.

Approx. 190,000 members

Spent approx. $21 million on lobbying efforts in 2023

NRA (insider group)

leading gun rights organization in the US with its main aim being to promote public safety, law and order and national defence by promoting and encouraged rifle shooting

Approx. 5.5 million members

Spent:

Lobbying so far in 2024

Outside spending = $10 million

Lobbying $10 million

Contributions = $830000

Spent over $30 million on behalf of Trump in 2016

Climate Direct Action (outsider group)

Focuses on immediate, often confrontational, tactics like protests and blockades to halt fossil fuel projects, drawing attention to urgent climate issues and pressuring policymakers for rapid change

Everytown for Gun Safety (promotional group)

want to end and reduce gun violence

Nearly 10 million voters

Spent $2 million on lobbying so far in 2024

Nearly $50 million since its creation

National Association for the advancement of coloured people - NAACP (interest group)

The NAACP's mission is to eliminate racial prejudice, ensure equality for all citizens, and remove barriers to racial discrimination.

Has over 500,000 members

Reported expenses of approx. $7.5 million

Helped with Brown v Board of Education case

Ballard partners

Lobbying firm with several high status clients/ companies

e.g. Google, Amazon, NBA

#MeToo (social movement)

raise awareness of the scope of sexual violence especially in industries with strong positions of power. Particularly protecting women of colour from low income backgrounds

Raised over $21 million in 2018

Black lives matter (social movement)

Focus on police brutality and violence against Black individuals. Advocates for criminal justice reform and more broadly equity and accessibility and empowerment for Black communities

• 15-26 million people participated in protests in the US in 2020

• 67% of adults in the United States supported the movement in 2020, but support declined to 51% in 2023

• 81% of African Americans, 61% of Hispanics, and 63% of Asian Americans supported the movement in 2023

The #BlackLivesMatter hashtag has appeared in more than 44 million tweets

Elon Musk donation to SuperPACs

In 2024 Elon Musk donated $120 million in October alone to SuperPACs - example of elitism in US pressure groups

Did not donate this directly to Trump as this is illegal

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

Established judicial review, allowing the supreme court to strike down unconstitutional laws

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

Established separate but equal

was then overturned by the case Brown v. Board of Education in 1954

Brown v Board of Education (1954)

unanimously held that the racial segregation of children in public schools violated the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. Brown claimed that Topeka's racial segregation violated the Constitution's Equal Protection Clause because the city's black and white schools were not equal to each other and never could be. Overruled Plessy v. Ferguson's "separate but equal" doctrine and would eventually led to the desegregation of schools across the South

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)

constitutional amendment passed by Congress but never ratified that would have banned discrimination on the basis of gender

Was only ratified by 35 states when it needed 38 (3/4s of state legislatures)

13th Amendment

Abolished slavery

passed on January 31st 1865 and ratified December 6th 1865

14th Amendment

granted citizenship and equal protection under the law to everyone born or naturalised in the US including former slaves

15th Amendment

granted African American men the right to vote, prohibiting voting restrictions based on race, colour or previous condition servitude

Jim Crow laws

Laws designed to enforce segregation of blacks from whites

civil rights act 1964

outlawed discrimination based on race, colour, religion, sex or national origin. it prohibited segregation in schools, employment and public accommodations

NAACP focus

focussed on ensuring that African-Americans receive equal economic, education, health, criminal justice and voting rights and expanding youth engagement in civil rights

Civil Rights Act of 1957

main focus was on voting rights

Civil Rights Act of 1964

focussed on outlawing discrimination

Civil Rights Act 1968

main focus was on housing discrimination

example of why pressure groups are undemocratic

Koch brothers funded Americans of Prosperity which advocates for free-market policies, lower taxes and deregulation. It opposes Obamacare, climate change regulations and corporate taxation. Spends millions often supporting Republican candidates who align with their views. Promotes corporate interests over public interests and opposes minimum wage increases and workers rights protections - undermines democracy by using untraceable political donations (dark money)

SuperPAC example

America PAC founded by Elon Musk in May 2024 has donated over $70 million to Trump's campaign

FPTP enforces the two-party system example

In 1992 Ross Perot won 19% of the popular vote but secured 0 electoral college votes

Example of when third party candidates have influenced close elections

In 2000 the presidential election was between Bush and Gore

The result came down to the state of Florida

The green party candidate (Ralph Nader) secured more votes than Bush's final winning margin

If Nader hadn't run it is likely that his votes would have gone to Gore - who would of then won

Jo Jorgensen - Libertarian candidate in 2020

He took votes which would have otherwise gone to Trump - indirectly helping Biden win

Third party candidate policies can be co-opted

Ross Perot's pledge for a balanced budget in both 1992 + 1996

- Republican party embraced his call for a balanced budget

Third party candidates can have direct influence on congressional elections

In 2018, for Maine's 2nd District, Republican winner in the first round of elections failed to win the seat when the eliminated independent 2nd preference votes were redistributed

Polarisation between parties leading to gridlock

During Obama's presidency - Republican obstruction in congress limited the passage of legislation, such as challenged surrounding the Affordable Care Act

Oversight - The Signal Chat Scandal As An Example Of Ineffective Congressional Oversight Under Unifed Government:

• Incident: In March 2025, Mike Waltz, former National Security Advisor in the Trump administration, accidentally added a journalist to a group chat with 18 senior Cabinet officials and the Vice President, where they discussed war plans for a strike on the Houthi rebels in Yemen.

  • This leak of classified information was a national security breach, potentially endangering US soldiers.

• Response:

  • Despite the breach, Republican-led Congressional Committees ignored Democratic calls for investigations.

  • Republican Senators, including Tom Cotton, dismissed the need for investigations, backing the administration’s stance that no classified information was shared.

  • Cotton praised the strike’s success, framing opposition to an investigation as partisan rather than a legitimate concern.

The Imperial Presidency - Trump Administration Ignoring Judicial Orders As An Example Of A Lack Of Enforcement Powers And The Imperial Presidency

• Court's Limitation:

  • In March 2025, the Trump administration ignored a judicial directive to halt deportations of Venezuelan gang members, despite a temporary restraining order issued by the court.

  • The administration invoked the Alien Enemies Act via executive order to continue deportations, despite no declaration of war by Congress.

• Judicial Weakness:

  • This incident highlights the limits of the federal judicial system, where courts can issue rulings but lack enforcement power and depend on the cooperation of other branches (e.g., executive).

  • It shows how the judicial review power, while crucial, can be ineffective if the executive ignores court orders.

• Imperial Presidency:

  • The disregard for court rulings and separation of powers suggests an imperial presidency, where the President circumvents judicial authority and bypasses legal checks, undermining the rule of law and balance of powers.

President Biden’s Approach To Federalism

• Biden’s Federalism Approach:

  • Similar to previous Democratic presidents, Biden supports strong federal involvement in areas like public health, infrastructure, voting, and abortion rights.

• Tensions with Republican States:

  • His policies created tension with Republican states, leading to several Supreme Court cases, where the court often sided with the states over federal authority.

• COVID-19:

  • Biden's pandemic response involved federal mandates for vaccines and testing for employees, but the Supreme Court ruled the workplace mandate exceeded federal power.

• Abortion Rights:

  • After Roe v. Wade was overturned, Biden failed to pass federal protections for abortion rights but used executive orders to protect access, such as safeguarding patient travel across state lines.

• Infrastructure:

  • Biden successfully expanded infrastructure spending through the Bipartisan Infrastructure Bill, allocating $1.2 trillion in federal funds for roads and bridges, with little resistance from Republican states.

President Trump’s Approach To Federalism In His Second Term So Far

• Trump’s Support for States' Rights and Smaller Federal Government:

  • Trump’s rhetoric in the 2024 election and his second term focus on reducing federal government size and promoting states' rights, particularly in policy areas like immigration and energy.

• Project 2025:

  • Trump aims to reduce the size of the federal government while increasing Republican control. This includes dismantling the Department of Education and giving states more power over education, although full implementation may not occur.

• Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE):

  • Led by Elon Musk, DOGE aims to cut federal government waste by reducing the size of government, including job cuts and financial reductions.

• Deregulation Efforts:

  • Trump continues to push for fewer federal regulations, particularly in industries like business and energy. In January 2025, he passed Executive Order 14192, mandating the elimination of unnecessary federal regulations to promote economic growth.

Department of State v. AIDS Vaccine Advocacy Coalition 2025 - Supreme Court Strikes Down Trump Executive Order

• Supreme Court Overturns Trump Executive Order:

  • On March 5, 2025, the Supreme Court ruled 5-4 to overturn Trump's executive order pausing foreign aid funds. The Court determined that Congress had already allocated the $2 billion in foreign aid, limiting the president's authority to withhold these funds unilaterally.

• Judicial Review as a Check on Presidential Power:

  • The ruling demonstrates the Supreme Court’s role in checking presidential power through judicial review, protecting Congress’s power and ensuring the separation of powers is upheld.

• Unexpected Vote from Justice Barrett:

  • Despite being appointed by Trump as a conservative judge, Amy Coney Barrett joined the liberal justices in the majority, highlighting that justices may not always align with the expectations of their appointing president.

Congress's Failure To Fulfil Its Oversight Function Early On In The Second Trump Administration

• Firing of 17 Inspectors General:

  • Trump fired Inspectors General from 17 government agencies, undermining accountability and scrutiny of the executive branch. These inspectors, established post-Watergate, are tasked with tackling government abuses, waste, and mismanagement.

  • Despite federal law requiring the President to give 30 days notice and a reason for firing an inspector general, Trump violated this law, facing minimal opposition from Congress, particularly from Republican Senators who largely supported the move.

  • This reflects Congress’s failure to assert its oversight power, particularly when unified government results in political cooperation, even when it undermines checks on presidential power.

• Challenge to Congress's Power of the Purse:

  • In early 2025, Trump unilaterally paused federal grants and loans to 2,600 programs, citing alignment with presidential priorities, in violation of the constitutional requirement that only Congress can authorize spending.

  • Despite the Congressional Review Act, Congress did not challenge this executive order, showing how a unified government can lead to ineffective oversight and a lack of checks on the President's power.

Trump's Joint Address To Congress As An Example Of The Formal Powers Of The President

Here’s a concise bullet point summary of the key points:

• Trump’s March 2025 Joint Address to Congress:

  • Outlined major policy priorities:

    • $4.5 trillion in permanent income tax cuts.

    • Repeal of Biden’s CHIPS and Science Act.

    • Funding a national “Golden Dome” missile shield.

    • Banning gender transitions for minors and pro-transgender policies.

    • Mandatory death penalty for killing police officers.

• Presidential Powers Highlighted:

  • Demonstrated the President’s formal constitutional role as Chief Legislator—recommending measures to Congress through a Joint Address.

  • Used the speech to publicly frame his legislative and executive agenda, watched by tens of millions (the “bully pulpit” effect).

• Shift Toward Executive Dominance:

  • Speech emphasized presidential power over legislative collaboration.

  • Reflects growing use of informal powers to bypass Congress and centralize authority in the executive—challenging the constitutional balance of powers.

Mitch McConnell's Voting Record As An Example Of The Influence Of The Electoral Cycle On Voting Behaviour In Congress

• McConnell’s Independence:

  • Announced he won’t seek re-election, leading to more independent voting.

  • Cast lone Republican “no” votes on key Trump nominations: RFK Jr. (Health), Gabbard (Intelligence), Hegseth (Defense).

  • Criticised GOP colleagues for failing their constitutional duty of oversight.

• Significance of the Electoral Cycle:

  • McConnell's behavior shows how lack of electoral pressure frees members to vote based on principle, not party.

  • Electoral incentives heavily shape congressional voting—especially close to re-election.

• Comparison with Joni Ernst:

  • Up for re-election in 2026, voted for Hegseth despite concerns.

  • Motivated by fear of primary challenges and need to align with pro-Trump grassroots in Iowa.

  • Highlights how re-election concerns dominate voting behavior in Congress.

Trump's Tariffs As An Example Of The Foreign Policy Powers Of The President

• Trump imposed sweeping tariffs in 2025, including a 10% tariff on all imports and up to 125% on Chinese goods, using them as leverage on immigration and drug trafficking issues with countries like Mexico and Canada.

• He invoked the 1977 International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA) to justify the tariffs, despite the act not authorizing tariff powers — a legally unprecedented move.

• These actions reveal how presidents can stretch emergency powers to bypass Congress, challenging constitutional checks on trade policy (which Article I assigns to Congress).

• Congress has failed to push back, despite tools like the Congressional Review Act, showing the weakness of oversight in a highly polarized and unified government.

• This supports theories of an imperial presidency, especially in foreign policy, where executive power has grown significantly and Congress struggles to enforce limits.

The Department Of Government Efficiency And The Role Of The US Cabinet

• Trump created the Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE) via executive order on his first day in office, appointing Elon Musk to lead it.

• DOGE is part of the Executive Office of the President (EXOP), not a formal Cabinet department, meaning it operates without Congressional oversight, transparency rules, or confirmation processes.

• DOGE has already exercised major influence—shutting down USAID and preparing to dismantle the Department of Education, despite lacking legal authority for such actions.

• Senate Minority Leader Chuck Schumer criticized DOGE as an "unelected shadow government" due to its unchecked power.

• This reflects the growing informal power of the presidency, where the West Wing and EXOP often hold more day-to-day influence than the Cabinet, blurring lines of constitutional accountability

rump's Executive Order On Birthright Citizenship As An Example Of The Amendment Process:

🇺🇸 Trump's Attempt to End Birthright Citizenship

• On day one, President Trump signed an executive order aimed at ending birthright citizenship for children of undocumented migrants.

• This directly contradicts the 14th Amendment, which guarantees citizenship to anyone born in the U.S.

• 19 Democratic-led states have filed legal challenges; the order is expected to be struck down by the courts.

• The situation demonstrates:

  • 💪 The strength of the U.S. Constitution's amendment process, which prevents rash, politically motivated changes.

  • ⚖ A major check on presidential power — the judiciary can block unconstitutional executive actions.

Trump’s Executive Orders As An Example Of Presidential Power

157 as of may

• Trump signed the most executive orders ever on a president’s first day, including:

  • Leaving the WHO and Paris Agreement

  • Suspending all foreign aid for 3 months

• These dramatic policy shifts happened without checks from Congress or the courts.

• Demonstrates the growing use of executive power → signs of an Imperial Presidency.

• Executive orders:

  • Allow presidents to bypass Congress by directing federal agencies.

  • Have grown in use, especially when legislative cooperation is limited.

• ⚠ Limitation: Executive actions are easily reversed by successors — Trump revoked 78 Biden-era racial equity actions on day one.

rump's Appointment Of Marco Rubio To USAID As An Example Of Informal Powers And The Imperial Presidency

• Marco Rubio was appointed acting administrator of USAID by Secretary of State powers, following Trump’s signals to shut the agency down.

• This is a de-facto dismantling of USAID, bypassing Congress.

💥 Constitutional Issues:

• Only Congress can legally shut down or restructure federal agencies like USAID (created in 1961).

• Appointing Rubio without Senate confirmation sidesteps oversight and checks and balances.

⚠ Broader Implications:

• Reflects expanding executive power and centralisation under Trump.

• Demonstrates how presidents can subvert Congressional authority through executive manoeuvring, avoiding transparency and accountability.

Pete Hegseth’s Confirmation As An Example Of Congressional Oversight

• Controversial confirmation: Hegseth, a former Fox News host with limited military experience and multiple allegations, was confirmed to lead the $850 billion Defense Department.

• Vote was 50-50, broken by VP JD Vance—only the 2nd time a VP has had to break a tie on a Cabinet nominee.

• Only 3 GOP Senators opposed, including Mitch McConnell; all Democrats voted no.

• Hegseth refused to meet with Senate Democrats during confirmation.

🔍 Broader Significance:

• Reflects deepening partisanship—Cabinet confirmations now based on party loyalty, not qualifications.

• Undermines the Senate’s scrutiny and vetting role, once guided by bipartisan consensus.

• Symbolic of polarisation driving a shift from accountability to ideological alignment.

The Supreme Court Upholds A TikTok Ban

• Case: The Supreme Court unanimously rejected an appeal regarding the ban on TikTok in the case TikTok Inc. v Garland (2025).

• Ruling: The Court upheld that the legislation passed by Congress did not violate free speech rights.

• Background: Congress passed the Protecting Americans From Foreign Adversary Controlled Applications Act (2024), requiring TikTok to divest to a US owner due to national security concerns.

  • Bipartisan Support: The bill, introduced by Republicans and Democrats, passed with significant majorities in both chambers: 352-65 in the House, and 79-18 in the Senate.

🔍 Broader Implications:

• Judicial Restraint: The ruling reflects the Court’s judicial restraint, with judges deferring to Congress and the Executive rather than making political or social changes.

• National Security: The decision backed Congress’s role in addressing national security concerns over foreign influence via apps like TikTok.

• Legislative Victory: This bipartisan success is an example of a rare collaborative effort to address concerns over foreign-controlled technology

The 2024 US Budget And Government Shutdown As An Example Of Gridlock: 

• Budget Approval: In December 2024, Congress avoided a shutdown by passing the budget just before the deadline, demonstrating their power of the purse.

• Gridlock and Stopgaps: Increasing gridlock between the branches, especially during divided governments, led to reliance on stopgap funding and continuing resolutions instead of a full budget.

• American Relief Act (2025): This bill funded the government until March 2025, but excluded key Biden priorities like healthcare and disaster relief, showing how Congress can limit the executive's agenda.

• Trump’s Influence: Trump pushed to reject the bipartisan deal, demanding debt ceiling suspension measures. His MAGA base is increasingly influencing Republican priorities, moving away from traditional fiscal conservatism.

• Party Polarization: The Freedom Caucus (right-wing Republicans) has become more influential, voting against most appropriations bills and creating internal GOP tensions between moderates and fiscal conservatives.

• Congressional Power: This budget battle highlights how Congress uses its appropriations power to check the executive and control federal spending, but polarization is weakening bipartisan cooperation.

Biden Issues The Largest Amount Of Pardons In US History

• Biden’s Pardons (December 2024): President Joe Biden issued a record 1500 pardons in December 2024, focusing primarily on non-violent drug offenses and individuals convicted due to sexual orientation. This marks the largest number of pardons ever granted on a single day by any U.S. President.

• Trump’s Pardons: In contrast, President Trump granted 237 pardons over the course of his first term, showing a more limited use of this power compared to Biden.

• Key Pardons Issued by Biden: Biden issued pardons to individuals convicted of marijuana possession and veterans convicted due to their sexual orientation, advancing social aims like criminal justice reform.

• Judicial Power of Pardons: This highlights one of the presidential powers—the authority to grant pardons, which can be a highly controversial tool to influence policy, especially in the realm of criminal justice reform

Hunter Biden's Pardon As An Example Of The Formal Powers Of The President

n December 2024, President Joe Biden granted a full and unconditional pardon to his son, Hunter Biden. The pardon effectively nullified all of Hunter Biden's offenses, including illegally possessing a firearm and federal tax offenses

Matt Gaetz Drops Out Of His Nomination As Attorney General: 

• November 22, 2024: Matt Gaetz nominated by President-elect Trump for Attorney General.

• Gaetz faced scrutiny due to a federal investigation into sex trafficking allegations.

• Senate opposition, including from moderate Republicans like Lisa Murkowski, led to difficulties securing majority support.

• As a result, Gaetz withdrew from consideration, and Trump nominated Pam Bondi instead.

• This highlights the Senate's power to confirm or reject presidential appointments for executive and judicial positions.

• The Constitution grants the Senate this authority, making it a key check on presidential power.

• The threat of Senate rejection forces the President to maintain Congressional support for key appointments.

The 2024 Presidential Election And The Declining Importance Of Incumbency

• Historically, 11/14 incumbents were re-elected prior to 2012, showing a significant advantage for sitting presidents

• However, recent trends have shown disadvantages of incumbency, with Kamala Harris (2024) losing the popular vote and 7 swing states.

• 2024 marked the second consecutive presidential loss for an incumbent (Trump lost in 2020

Campaign Finance in the 2024 US Presidential Election

• Campaign Finance in 2024: Campaign finance played a crucial role, with Harris outraising Trump by a 5-1 margin.

  • Harris raised nearly $1 billion since entering the race in July, while Trump raised $388 million.

  • Harris Victory Fund PAC raised $1.2 billion (FEC data), while Trump-affiliated PACs spent $194.6 million.

  • The 2024 election was the most expensive in history, costing $3.5 billion.

• Despite the significant fundraising advantage, Harris failed to win key battleground states:

  • In Pennsylvania, Harris outspent Trump by $261.9 million, yet Trump secured all 19 electoral votes.

• Harris' campaign spent heavily on TV ads and ground efforts in swing states but could not detach itself from Biden’s economic message or overcome Trump's strong base support

Elon Musk Is Giving Some US Voters $1M 

Elon Musk's Support for Trump:

• Elon Musk, a billionaire, strongly supported Donald Trump and became a significant financial backer through his Political Action Committee (PAC), America PAC.

• Musk offered a $1 million prize to individuals in swing states who registered to vote, a move that attracted significant controversy for potentially violating US election laws prohibiting financial incentives for voter registration.

• Key takeaway: PACs and Super PACs demonstrate the significant role of money in US politics, potentially distorting the electoral process and making fundraising a key factor in winning elections.

he Importance Of Demographics To The 2024 US Election: 

• The 2024 U.S. Presidential Election is likely to have a significant gender divide.

• Women (53% of voters) are crucial, with Trump struggling to capture their support due to misogyny, sexual assault allegations, and his role in overturning Roe v. Wade.

• Suburban white women, once leaning Republican, have increasingly supported the Democrats.

• Black women strongly back Kamala Harris, but Black men show decreasing loyalty to Democrats, with a shift toward Trump due to factors like economics and immigration.

• Shifting Minority Support:

  • Latino voters, especially men, have increasingly supported Trump. His Latino support has grown from 27% in 2020 to around 40%, driven by concerns over the economy.

• Impact on Campaigns:

  • Harris and Obama are focusing on re-engaging Black voters, while Trump aims to win back female voters and Latino men.

Elon Musk’s Political Support For Trump and Media Bias

• Elon Musk's Influence on Twitter (X):

  • Elon Musk's recent control of Twitter (X) challenges this perception, especially as he has become politically active in supporting Donald Trump in the 2024 election.

  • Musk, who used to be a Democrat, has shifted right-wing and even appeared on stage with Trump and offered financial incentives to encourage voter registration for Trump supporters.

• Financial Interests and Political Support:

  • Musk’s support for Trump aligns with his financial interests—as the owner of Tesla, Musk stands to benefit from Trump’s proposed tariffs on Chinese electric cars.

  • His support also appears to reflect a genuine political transformation towards the right.

• Concerns Over Democracy:

  • Musk has criticized political figures like Keir Starmer with views linked to far-right conspiracy theories.

  • His control over Twitter raises concerns about the potential manipulation of political discourse, as he has significant power over Twitter's algorithms, which could be used to promote Trump’s agenda and shape users’ political information, potentially threatening democracy.

The Biden-Harris Executive Order on Combating Emerging Firearms Threats and Improving School-Based Active Shooter Drills

• Biden's Executive Order on Gun Violence (2024):

  • On September 26, 2024, the Biden-Harris administration signed an executive order to address gun violence in the U.S.

  • The order focuses on:

    • Tackling emerging firearm threats, such as machine gun conversion devices and 3D printed guns.

    • Developing guidance for schools to minimize psychological harm during active-shooter drills.

• Biden's Gun Control Agenda:

  • Gun control is a key focus for Biden, and his administration has issued more executive actions on gun violence than any other.

  • Despite limited success with Congressional legislation (e.g., the Manchin-Toomey Bill failing), Biden uses executive orders to push his agenda.

IVF Legislation As An Example Of The Filibuster And Gridlock In Congress:  

• efeat of the Right to IVF Act (2024):

  • On June 13, 2024, Republican Senators defeated the Right to IVF Act (2024) using the Filibuster.

  • The filibuster required 60 votes to invoke cloture and allow the bill to be brought to a vote, and it failed to meet this threshold.

  • Criticism of the bill included:

    • Lack of committee process.

    • No Congressional Budget Office (CBO) score.

    • Bill was directly brought to the floor by Senate Majority Leader Chuck Schumer using exceptional methods, leading to claims of insufficient scrutiny.

• Role of the Filibuster:

  • The filibuster can be an effective tool for the minority party in Congress to ensure that legislation is thoroughly scrutinized and ideally has bipartisan support before advancing.

• Hyper-Partisanship and Legislative Gridlock:

  • The Democratic rejection of the GOP-led IVF Protection Act (2024) the previous day, for not going far enough, demonstrates the hyper-partisanship in Congress.

  • Legislative gridlock prevents significant policy changes or protections from being enacted, in this case, leaving IVF treatment without legislative protection.

  • This highlights the ongoing challenges in achieving compromise and passing key priorities due to partisan polarization.

NRA spending 2023

• 2.3 million lobbying

• Mitt romney recieved over 13 million in campaigns

membership size pressure groups

• american association of reitred persons - 38 million- allowed them to advocate for affordable care act- large scale lobbying

AMA shape legislation/ AMC

• provide testimony by physicians and med students and detaioled research on health policies

• critical support affordable care act - research advocate for reforms and change way healthcare is delievered

• american cancwer society research on dangers of smoking- played role development of public health campaigns and tobacco control- graphic labels and increased taxes