The Scientific Revolution, Enlightenment, and Atlantic Revolutions

Flashcards covering key vocabulary from the Scientific Revolution, the Enlightenment, and the English, American, and French Revolutions.

Geocentric Theory

The old, accepted belief that the Earth was the static center of the universe, with ten crystal spheres moving around it.

Heliocentric Theory

The revolutionary idea that the Sun is the center of the universe, and the Earth revolves around it.

Scientific Method

A new way of conducting research that was empirical and experimental, relying on observation and data collection to test hypotheses.

Nicolas Copernicus

A Polish astronomer who first developed the heliocentric theory, overturning the medieval view of the universe.

Tycho Brahe

Built an advanced observatory to collect data that provided evidence supporting the heliocentric theory.

Johannes Kepler

Used mathematical calculations to confirm the heliocentric theory and discovered that planets move in elliptical (oval-shaped) orbits.

Galileo Galilei

Used a telescope to make observations confirming Copernicus's theory, discovering craters on the moon and spots on the sun. He was tried and convicted of heresy by the Catholic Church.

Isaac Newton

An English scientist who integrated the work of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo, formulating mathematical principles to explain motion, with his core idea being the universal law of gravitation.

Enlightenment

An intellectual movement where thinkers (Philosophes) challenged established ideas, particularly absolute monarchy and the power of the church, standing for freedoms of religion, press, and limits on power.

Philosophe

The French word for the thinkers of the Enlightenment.

Divine Right

The belief that a monarch's power to rule comes directly from God, used to justify absolute rule but rejected by Enlightenment thinkers.

Natural Rights

The idea that people are born with certain rights that cannot be taken away, defined by John Locke, and influencing key declarations like the American Declaration of Independence.

Social Contract

A concept most associated with Jean-Jacques Rousseau, outlined in his 1762 book of the same name.

General Will

An idea from Rousseau that government should be based on the 'general will' of the people, interpreted as a call for democracy.

John Locke

An English philosopher who rejected divine right, arguing that governments should rule with the consent of the governed and respect natural rights.

Voltaire

A French writer who attacked the Catholic Church for repressing human liberty, believing in equality before the law and rule by an enlightened monarch.

Montesquieu

A French philosophe who promoted the idea of a separation of powers within government, heavily influencing the U.S. Constitution.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Believed people were naturally good and that government should be guided by the 'general will' of the people.

Mary Wollstonecraft

An English writer who argued that women should have equal rights, including education, because they possessed reason like men.

Denis Diderot

Created the Encyclopedia to spread knowledge, challenge traditional thinking, and promote religious toleration.

Magna Carta

A foundational English document (1215) that established rights for Englishmen, such as trial by jury, and the principle of no taxation without Parliament's consent.

Parliament

England's legislature, which came into conflict with kings over issues of taxation and religion, including the House of Commons representing the rising middle class.

English Civil War

A war fought in the 1640s between the supporters of King Charles I (Cavaliers) and the supporters of Parliament (Roundheads), ending in the execution of the king.

Cavaliers (or Royalists)

Supporters of the king during the English Civil War, mostly nobles loyal to the Anglican Church.

Roundheads (or Parliamentarians)

Supporters of Parliament during the English Civil War, composed of the middle class, small landowners, and mostly Puritans.

Glorious Revolution

A bloodless revolution in 1688 where Parliament invited James II's Protestant daughter Mary and her husband William to take the throne, leading to James II fleeing without a fight.

Limited Monarchy (Constitutional Monarchy)

A system where the king's power is limited by law, and Parliament is established as a permanent part of government, destroying the idea of divine right.

English Bill of Rights

A document William and Mary had to sign in 1689 to become rulers, guaranteeing rights for Englishmen such as freedom of speech and the right to petition the government.

James I

King who believed strongly in the divine right of kings (ruled 1603-1625), setting the stage for conflict with Parliament.

Charles I

Son of James I (ruled 1625-1649), whose conflicts with Parliament led to the English Civil War and his eventual execution.

Charles II

Restored to the throne after the republic failed (ruled 1660-1685), ruling during a relatively peaceful period.

James II

Charles II's Catholic brother (ruled 1685-1688), whose anti-Protestant actions and the birth of his son led to the Glorious Revolution and his removal from power.

Seven Years' War

A global conflict (1756-1763) between Britain and France for control of territory; Britain won but incurred massive debt, leading to new taxes on colonies.

Declaration of Independence

The document (1776) announcing the American colonies' separation from Britain, based on John Locke's natural rights and the consent of the governed.

Articles of Confederation

The first constitution of the United States (1781-1789), designed to be very weak with no chief executive, national court, or power to tax/draft soldiers.

Shays' Rebellion

An uprising (1786) of debt-ridden farmers in Massachusetts, led by Daniel Shays, protesting farm seizures, which showed the failure of the Articles of Confederation.

U.S. Constitution

The document (1789) that replaced the Articles, creating a stronger federal government, incorporating Enlightenment ideas, and initially protecting slavery.

Old Regime

The name for the social and political system in France before the revolution, dividing society into Three Estates.

First Estate

The clergy in France's Old Regime, making up 0.5% of the population, owning 10% of the land, and paying almost no taxes.

Second Estate

The Aristocracy (nobles) in France's Old Regime, 1.5% of the population, owning 20% of the land, paying few taxes, and holding high positions.

Third Estate

Everyone else in France's Old Regime (98% of the population), including the bourgeoisie, urban workers, and peasants, who paid heavy taxes.

Estates General

An assembly called by Louis XVI to solve the financial crisis, where each estate had only one vote, ensuring the First and Second Estates could outvote the Third.

National Assembly

Formed by the Third Estate after frustration with the unfair voting system in the Estates General, declaring itself the true representative body of France.

Tennis Court Oath

An oath taken by the National Assembly on June 20, 1789, vowing not to stop meeting until they had written a new constitution for France.

Bastille

A medieval prison in Paris, symbolizing the injustice of the monarchy; its storming on July 14, 1789, became the symbolic start of the French Revolution.

Radical Phase (French Revolution)

Led by Maximilien Robespierre, during which the monarchy was abolished, Louis XVI was executed, and nationalism rose.

Napoleon Bonaparte

A general who seized power, ending the French Revolution, creating a French empire, and spreading revolutionary ideas across Europe.

Louis XVI

The King of France whose ineffective rule and financial mismanagement helped cause the revolution; he was executed in 1793.

Jacques Necker

Louis XVI's finance minister whose attempt to tax the nobles failed.

Clergy

The First Estate in the Old Regime.

Aristocracy

The Second Estate, or nobility, in the Old Regime.

Bourgeoisie

The French term for the middle class, part of the Third Estate, often educated and influenced by Enlightenment ideals.

Liberal

A political term for people who wanted to limit government interference in individual lives and grant voting rights to property owners, driving the early stages of the French and American Revolutions.