Anatomy and Physiology Midterm

Chemical Level

The most basic level of organization in the body, consisting of matter and elements.

Atom

A single particle of an element.

Molecule

Two or more atoms chemically bonded together.

Compound

Two or more molecules bonded together.

Organic Substances

Compounds that contain carbon, such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Inorganic Substances

Substances that do not contain carbon, including water, salts, acids, and bases.

Cell Level

The basic unit of structure and function in living organisms.

Tissue

A cluster of connected cells with similar functions.

Epithelial Tissue

Tissue that lines inner and outer body surfaces, functions in protection and absorption.

Connective Tissue

Tissue that supports, binds together, and protects other tissues and organs.

Muscle Tissue

Tissue that can contract to cause movement, classified as cardiac, smooth, or skeletal.

Nervous Tissue

Tissue composed of neurons that carry electrical messages; makes up the brain and spinal cord.

Homeostasis

The condition of equilibrium in the body’s internal environment through regulatory processes.

Negative Feedback Loop

Mechanism that counteracts change to maintain homeostasis.

Positive Feedback Loop

Mechanism that amplifies changes, moving away from homeostasis.

Anatomical Position

A standard position of the body used as a reference in anatomy.

Superior

Referring to a structure being higher than another.

Inferior

Referring to a structure being lower than another.

Axial Skeleton

The central part of the skeleton consisting of 80 bones, including the skull and vertebral column.

Appendicular Skeleton

The portion of the skeleton that includes the limbs and their attachments to the axial skeleton.

Long Bones

Bones that are longer than they are wide, typically found in the limbs.

Short Bones

Bones that are about as wide as they are long; provide stability and movement.

Flat Bones

Thin and flat bones that often protect internal organs.

Irregular Bones

Bones with complex shapes that do not fit into other categories.

Ossification

The process by which bone forms, occurring in several stages.

Bone Remodeling

The process of ongoing replacement of old bone tissue by new bone tissue.

Neurons

Specialized cells that transmit nerve impulses.

Ganglia

Structures containing neuron cell bodies that act as relay stations in the nervous system.

Neuroglia

Supporting cells in the nervous system that protect and support neurons.

Action Potential

An electrical signal that travels along the axon of a neuron.

Synapse

The gap between neurons where neurotransmitters are released.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that transmit signals across a synapse from one neuron to another.

Eccrine Glands

Sweat glands that regulate body temperature, found throughout the body.

Apocrine Glands

Sweat glands found in specific areas like armpits, associated with hair follicles.

Keratinocytes

Cells that produce keratin, a protein that helps form the skin's protective barrier.

Melanocytes

Cells that produce melanin, responsible for skin pigmentation.

Langerhans Cells

Immune cells in the epidermis that help protect against pathogens.

Sarcopenia

The loss of muscle mass and function associated with aging.

Hypertrophy

The enlargement of existing muscle cells, typically resulting from exercise.

Atrophy

The shrinking of muscle cells due to lack of use.

Homeostasis Regulation

The body's ability to maintain stable internal conditions despite external changes.

Vasodilation

Widening of blood vessels to increase blood flow and heat loss.

Vasoconstriction

Narrowing of blood vessels to decrease blood flow and conserve heat.

Hematopoiesis

The process of blood cell formation.

Cerebrospinal Fluid

A fluid that cushions and protects the brain and spinal cord.

Blood-Brain Barrier

A selective barrier that prevents certain substances from entering the brain.

Thalamus

Acts as a relay station for sensory impulses in the brain.

Hypothalamus

Regulates autonomic nervous system functions like temperature and hunger.

Cerebellum

Responsible for balance and coordination of movement.

Cerebral Hemispheres

The two halves of the brain responsible for higher brain functions.

Dendrites

Branch-like structures that receive signals from other neurons.

Axon Terminal

The end part of an axon that releases neurotransmitters.

Myelin Sheath

Insulating layer around axons that speeds up signal transmission.

Nodes of Ranvier

Gaps in the myelin sheath where action potentials are regenerated.

Astrocytes

Star-shaped cells that provide structural support in the nervous system.

Microglial Cells

Immune cells in the central nervous system that remove debris.

Oligodendrocytes

Cells that produce myelin in the central nervous system.

Schwann Cells

Cells that produce myelin in the peripheral nervous system.

Sensory Function

The role of the nervous system in detecting internal and external stimuli.

Motor Function

The activation of effectors such as muscles and glands in response to stimuli.