Psych 127B - Exam 1 (Karlsgodt)

The Nature of Genes: Chromosomes

- We have 23 pairs of chromosomes (pairs 1-22 are for brain and body develop, but pair 23 is the sex chromosome)

-The ordering of pairs determines how the body develops

Genome: An individual's complete set of genes

Polygenic, Quantitative Genetics, Molecular Genetics

P: Influenced by many genes; each contributing only a tiny effect - this can be all influenced by the environment

Q: Sums up all tiny effects of genes without saying which genes are responsible

M: Structure of genes

What is half our personality traits and cognitive abilities attributed to?

Genetic influence; all other changes are a result of the environment

The Diathesis - Stress Model

A diagnostic model in which individuals inherit tendencies to express certain traits or behaviors, which may then be activated under conditions of stress.

-Each inherited tendency is a diathesis/vulnerability

Diathesis (vulnerability)

A condition that makes someone susceptible to developing a disorder. When the right kind of trigger is present, a disorder can develop.

-Diathesis is genetics based and stress is environmental based, both together creates a disorder

-The greater the vulnerability, the less stress required; the less vulnerable, the more stress is required

The Gene - Environment Correlation Model

The hypothesis that people with genetic predisposition for a disorder may also have a genetic tendency to create environmental risk factors that promote the disorder

-Some evidence indicates that genetic endowment may increase the probability that an individual will experience stressful life events

Epigenetic and the Nongenomic "Inheritance" of behavior

Not all personality traits are highly inherited by genetics; some traits developed through their environment can be inherited (The environment can change gene expression)

Epigenetics

the study of factors other than inherited DNA sequence, such as new learning or stress, that alter the phenotypic expression of genes

The Central Nervous System

Command and control center that governs perception, thoughts, feelings, memories, decisions and behaviors. Processes all information received from our sense organs and reacts as necessary

-The spinal cord and brain apart of CNS

- Floats in a bath of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

CSF circulates the brain's aqueducts and ventricles (fluid-filled spaces around and within the brain)

- CSF is produced by tissue within the ventricles (~500 ml/day)

Cerebellum (CNS)

Helps generate smooth, coordinated movement, integrates visual, motor, vestibular, and somatosensory info (alcohol affects the cerebellum)

Action Potential, Terminal Button, Synaptic Cleft

AP: Short periods of electrical activity at the membrane of a neuron, responsible for the transmission of signals within the neuron

TB: The end of an axon (of a neuron) where neurotransmitters are stored before release

SC:Space between nerve cells where chemical transmitters act to move impulses fro one neuron to the next

The Structure of the Brain (6)

1) Brain Stem

2) Thalamus

3) Hypothalamus

4) Limbic System

5) Basal Ganglia

6) Cerebral Cortex

Brain Stem, Thalamus, Hypothalamus

BS: All connections to the rest of the body pass through (motor, sensory); Responsible for automatic bodily functions like breathing (also includes: Hindbrain: automatic function; Midbrain: arousal and tension sensory input (it's dopamine system is involved in addiction, schizophrenia, and parkinson's disease)

T: Gateway to the cortex, all information passes through the thalamus

H: controls a number of different drives, including: sleep, hunger, thirst, sex, sleep/wake cycle (the 4 F's: fight, flight, feeding, mating)

Case Study: Jean - Dominque Bauby: Locked-in syndrome

Suffered from an abrupt massive stroke that severed his brainstem. The stroke disconnected his brain from his spinal cord, and rendered him quadriplegic and mute. By communicating with his left eyelid, the only part of his body that was spared alongside with his mind

- People with Locked-in Syndrome remain comatose for some days or weeks, needing artificial respiration and then gradually wake up, but remain paralyzed and voiceless

- Bauby and all the patients alike in fact remain mentally lucid and competent

Limbic System, Basal Ganglia, Cerebral Cortex

LS: (also includes hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, septum, amygdala) Regulates emotional experiences & expressions; our ability to learn and control our impulses

BG: Controls motor activity; highly dopaminergic; related to schizophrenia and substance abuse

CC: a single large sheet of tissue and is crumpled up like a wad of paper to fit inside our skulls. Neuroscientists use the folds and creases of the cortex as landmarks for identifying specific brain areas (Each groove is called SULCUS (plural: sulci) Each bump is called a GYRUS (plural: gyri)) Distinct human qualities; allows us to plan, reason, and create (makes up 80% of the brain). Left brain is more technical and right brain is more creative

Neuroanatomy Landmarks (3)

1) Central Sulcus

2) Lateral Fissure

3) Calcarine Fissure

Neurons and Glia

Brain is made up of both of these cells. They come in many different types; they vary in shapes and sizes.

- Neurons process information in the brain

- Glial cells do not directly participate in signal processing, but they perform vital support functions for neurons

- 90% of cells in the brain are glial cells

White matter vs Gray Matter

- Gray matter consists of neurons and synapses

- White matter consists of fibers that carry information between one brain region and another; has myelin that surrounds the fibers (bundled axons connecting different brain structures)

Myelin

Some axons are surrounds by myelin sheath (insulation)

- cortical regions that contain lots of myelin are called white matter (dense axon bundles connecting different brain structures)

- cortical regions that contain little myelin are called gray matter (dendrites and neurons cell bodies)

Multiple Sclerosis

Caused by loss of myelin in the CNS

- symptoms vary depending on which part of the brain is affected

Case Study: Henry Gustav Molaison

Severe epilepsy; got his hippocampus, parahippocampus, and amygdala removed in 1953.

- Post - surgery: could not form new declarative memories, but he could learn new skills

The Peripheral Nervous System (Somatic System & Automatic System)

Relays sensory information about the world to the CNS, carries commands from the CNS to muscles and organs; Coordinates with the brain stem to makes sure the body is working properly.

SS: Controls the muscles

AS: Regulates the cardiovascular and endocrine systems (Has sympathetic (stimulates sweating, inhibits salivation, dilates pupil, inhibits digestion, stimulates epinephrine, stimulates glucose release, speeds heartbeat) and parasympathetic nervous system (stimulates salivation, constricts pupil, slows heartbeat, stimulates digestion, constricts airways)

Brain Vasculature: Stroke

Stroke: brain damage caused by restriction of blood to the brain by a burst or weak blood vessel, or by blockage

- Studying stroke patients has given us a great deal of information about how the brain works - strokes in different regions have very different effects

The Blood Brain Barrier (BBB)

- The Brain's Blood vessels have a restrictive barrier (BBB) that prevents many molecules (e.g. drugs) from entering the brain through the bloodstream

- A semi-permeable (selectivity permeable) barrier between the CNS and circulatory system, which helps to regulate the flow of nutrient rich fluid into the brain

-Substances must be actively transported across it (important for class because drugs pass through the BBB)

Meningitis

Inflammation of the meninges (brain and spinal cord membranes), usually caused by bacterial or viral infection

Meninges: the three membranes (the dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater) that line the skull and vertebral canal and enclose the brain and spinal cord.

Hormone, Adrenal Gland, Pituitary Gland, Gonadal Glands

H: Chemicals produced by glands in the Endocrine System, which releases directly into the bloodstream

AG: Produces the stress hormone Cortisol; epinephrine (Adrenaline) in response to stress

PG: Master gland; produces a variety of regulatory hormones

GG: Sex hormones; estrogen & testosterone

Neurotransmitters, Brain Circuit, reuptake

N: related to how we process information; chemical signals that travels through the synapses

BC: Circuit or neural pathway in the brain

R: Action by which a neurotransmitter is quickly drawn back into the discharging neuron after being released into a synaptic cleft

Agonist, Antagonist, Inverse agonist

AG: A chemical substrate that effectively increases the activity of a neurotransmitter by imitating its effects

AN: A chemical substrate that decreases or blocks the effects of a neurotransmitter

IA: A chemical that produces effects opposite those of a particular neurotransmitter

(Drugs either slow or increase production of neurotransmitters)

Two types of Neurotransmitters

1) Monoamines (norepinephrine): serotonin and dopamine; active in both central and peripheral nervous system

2) Amino-acid neurotransmitter: glutamate (Excites neurons that lead to action), Gamma-aminobutyric (GABA): reduces activity across the synaptic cleft and thus inhibits a range of behaviors and emotions, and generalized anxiety

Serotonin, Dopamine

S: involved in processing of information and coordination of movement, as well as inhibition and restraint. It also assists in the regulation of eating, sexual, and aggressive behaviors. Regulates our behavior, mood, and thought process. (Low serotonin activity has been associated with aggression, suicide)

D: Neurotransmitter whose generalized function is to activate other neurotransmitters and to aid in exploratory and pleasure seeking behaviors. A relative excess of dopamine is implicated in schizophrenia, and its deficit is involved in Parkinson's Disease

How do we study and treat psychopathology?: Assessing Psychological Disorders

Purposes of Clinical Disorders:

1) To understand the individual

2) To predict behavior

3) To plan treatment

4) To evaluate treatment outcome

(analogous to a funnel: starts broad, multidimensional in approach, narrow to specific problem areas)

Psychosocial Influences on Brain Structure and Function

- Psychosocial influences can change brain structure and function?

- Effects of treatment can tell us the nature of psychopathology, but this method is weak because treating the effect doesn't mean you treated the cause

-it's better to treat the maintaining effects than initiating

-Placebo effects can also help us tell if disorders are a result of a psychological factors such as increasing hope and expectations or conditioning effects

Interactions of Psychological Factors and Neurotransmitter Systems

-Psychological factors can directly affect levels of neurotransmitter

-The structure of neurons themselves can be changed by learning and experience during development and effects continue throughout our lives

Conditioning and Cognitive Processes

-Classical and Operant conditioning paradigms facilitate the learning of the relationship among events in the environment, thus this type of learning enables us to develop working ideas about the world that allows us to make more appropriate judgements

Learned Helplessness

People become anxious and depressed when they make an attribution that they have no control over the stress in their lives (whether or not they do so in reality)

Knowing you can escape from a situation changes how you feel

Social Learning: Modeling/Observational Learning, Prepared Learning

M/OL: Learning through observation and imitation of the behavior of other individuals and consequences

PL: Ability adaptive for evolution, allowing certain associations to be learned more readily than others.

- Preparedness is a concept developed to explain why certain associations are learned more readily than others. For example, phobias related to survival, such as snakes, spiders, and heights, are much more common and much easier to induce in the laboratory than other kinds of fears.

Clinical Assessment

Systematic evolution and measurement of psychological, biological and social factors in a person presenting with a possible psychological disorder

Diagnosis

A process of determining whether a presenting problem meets the established criteria for a specific psychological disorder

Four Types of Psychological Assessment (4)

1) Mental Status Exam: gives basic idea of overall picture of the patient, including issues that may or may not seem as important to the patient as to the the children

2) Clinical Interview: Structured/unstructured (SCID) in DSM-5; go methodically through diagnostic criteria for all major illnesses

3) Questionnaires: Individuals can fill out at home, online, or in waiting room

4) Behavioral Observations: Videotape or watch in natural setting; experimental design

The Clinical Interview: The Mental Status Exam (5)

Covers 5 categories:

1) Appearance & Behavior

2) Thought Process

3) Mood & Affect

4) Intellectual Functioning

5) Sensorium

Appearance & Behavior, Thought Process (the clinical interview)

A&B: Clinician notes any unusual physical behaviors

TP: Listen to how patients think and talk to hear for patterns (e.g. schizophrenia)

Mood & Affect

M: Predominant feeling state of the individuals

A: the feeling state that accompanies what we say at a given point

Intellectual Functioning, Sensorium

IF: Rough estimate of intelligence; verbal and performance domains

S: Our general awareness of our surrounding

Semi-Structured Clinical Interviews

Questions that have been carefully set up and worded to elicit important information in a consistent manner (weakness: if structure is too rigid, can inhibit obtaining information)

Why are there physical examinations for people with disorders?

Many psychological problems presenting as disorders may have a relationship to a temporary toxic state from eating bad food, etc..

Behavioral Assessment

Measuring, observing, and systematically evaluating the client's thoughts, feelings, and behavior in the actual problem situation or context (direct observation)

The ABCs of Observation

A: Antecedent (what happens before)

B: Behavior

C: Consequence

Self-monitoring (in the case of treatment)

Action by which clients observe and record their own behaviors as either an assessment of a problem and its change or a treatment procedure that makes them more aware of their responses

Psychological Testing (3)

Includes specific tools to determine cognitive, emotional, or behavioral responses that might be associated with a specific disorder and to assess long-standing personality features

3 types:

1) Projective testing

2) personality inventories

3) intelligence testing

Projective Testing (Psychological Testing)

Presents ambiguous stimuli to clients on the assumption that their responses can reveal their unconscious conflicts (controversial) EX: Rorcharch inkblot test

Personality inventories, Intelligence Testing

PI: Self-report questionnaire that assess personal traits by asking respondents to identify descriptions that apply to themselves

IT: estimating IQ

What is Neuropsychological testing and what does it asses?

NT: Assessment of brain and nervous system functioning by testing an individual's performance on behavioral tasks (useful for detecting organ damage)

Neuropsychological tests assess: broad base of skills and abilities, brain-behavior relations, assets and deficits (memory, attention, planning abilities, impulsivity, intellectual)

- Used to measure a psychological function known to be linked to a particular brain structure or pathway

-Raises concerns about false positives and false negatives

What are some different research approaches? (5)

1) Questionnaire based studies

2) Cognitive Studies

3) Neuroimaging

4) Animal Models

5) Genetics

Animal Models

Critical component of research in psychopathology:

- Generic models knockout mice allow the study of specific age, in isolation, to understand how they may contribute to mental illness

-Studies of neurotransmitter function provide the information about cellular mechanisms needs to understand how to create new medications

- Behavioral models human beings are very complex with incalculable influences from the environment accumulated over a lifetime, that make isolating specific effects difficult or impossible

- Development: human beings take decades to develop making it very difficult to study, while animals such as fruit flies, mice, and rats develop over much shorter time periods

Genetics Research Techniques (3)

Want to try to look at people with different amounts of genetic relatedness to see effects of genes:

1) High Risk Studies (longitudinally follow up children who are thought to be genetically at risk)

2) family studies (environmental factors)

3) twin studies (allows us to see the difference between nature vs nurture)

Neuro imaging (6)

1) PET: injection of radioactive isotopes; tells you which brain areas are active

2) CT: x-rays of brain structure from all different angles

3) MRI: use magnetic fields to construct 3D structural images

4) fMRI: track changes in brain activity

5) CAT: x-ray of brain structure from all different angles

6) SPECT

Psychophysiological Assessment

Measurement of changes in the nervous system reflecting psychological or emotional events such as anxiety, stress and sexual arousal (USES: EEG, ERP, GSR)

Strategies of Diagnosing Psychological Disorders (2)

1) Idiographic Strategy

2) Nomothetic Strategy

Idiographic Strategy

A close and detailed investigation of an individual emphasizing what makes that person unique (tailor treatment to individual)

Nomothetic Strategy

Identification and examination of large groups of people with the same disorder to note similarities and develop general laws

-Tries to assign objects or people to categories on the basis of shared characteristics

Nosology, Nomenclature

NOS: Classification and naming system for medical and psychological phenomena

NOM: in a naming system (nosology), the actual labels or names that are applied

Categorical and Dimensional Approaches

Classical Categorical Approach: assumes that every diagnosis has a clear underlying pathophysiological cause, and that each disorder is unique; a categorical division is imposed at the point at which it seems useful to initiate treatment (ex: if you have 4 or more of the symptoms, then you are diagnosed with:

Dimensional Approach: Method of categorizing characteristics on a continuum rather than on a binary, either-or, or all-or-none basis (no cutoff value); allows us to think about causal factors also operating on those with sub-thresholds levels of a disorder in the general population

Prototypical Approach

System for categorizing disorders using both essential, defining characteristics and range of variation on other characteristics (not the best)

Familial Aggression

Extent to which a disorder would be found among a patient's relatives

Human Genome Project

Ongoing project to develop a comprehensive map of all human genes

Endophenotypes

Genetic mechanism that contributes to the underlying problems causing the symptoms and difficulties experienced by people with psychological disorders

Proband

In genetic research, the individual displaying the trait or characteristics being studied

Genetic Linkage Analysis

Study that seeks to match the inheritance pattern of a disorder to that of a genetic marker; establishes the location of the gene responsible for the disorder

The difference between Anxiety and Fear

A: future oriented mood state characterized by apprehension due to not being able to predict or control an upcoming event

F: Immediate emotional reaction characterized by strong escapist action tendencies and also flight or fight response

Anxiety

- "The essential features of anxiety disorders are excessive and enduring fear, anxiety or avoidance of perceived threats, and can also include panic attacks"

- Mood state characterized by marked negative affect and bodily symptoms of tension in which a person apprehensively anticipates future danger or misfortune.; self-focused attention

- Anxiety may involve feelings, behaviors and physiological responses (unease in the brain is reflected in the elevated heart rate and muscle tension)

Anxiety is associated with some cognitive biases (4)

1) Selective attention to threat

2) Misinterpretations of neutral experiences as threatening

3) Overestimation of bad events in the future

4) Personalization of negative events

Fear

- Primitive, basic emotion with behavioral act of fight or flight-an instantaneous response necessary for survival

- Emotion of an immediate alarm reaction to present danger or life-threatening emergencies (flight or fight response)

Panic

Sudden, overwhelming fright or terror

Panic Attack: abrupt experience of intense fear or discomfort accompanied by several physical symptoms, such as dizziness and heart palpitations

Expected and unexpected attacks

Glucocorticoid Effects (ex: cortisol)

- Increase plasma glucose levels

- Inhibit the immune system

- Inhibit digestion and excretion

- Inhibit swelling and induce analgesia

- These responses generally are ones that would be adaptive to exhibit in the face of a significant stress (like an attack)

- Adrenal glands -> epinephrine and norepinephrine

Causes of Anxiety and Related Disorders

1) Biological Contributions: We know there isn't a single gene that causes it; area of brain associated with anxiety (the limbic system)

Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS)

Brain circuit in the limbic system that responds to threat signals by inhibiting activity and causing anxiety. When activated, our tendency is to freeze, experience anxiety and apprehensively evaluate the situation to confirm that danger is present

Flight or Fight System (FFS)

Brain circuit in animals that when stimulated causes an immediate alarm-and-escape response resembling human panic (Brain stem -> midbrain structures -> ventromedial nucleus of hypotha -> central gray matter)

Psychological Contributions for Anxiety

May develop from upbringing and other disruptive or traumatic environmental factors (ex: parental involvement)

Anxiety Sensitivity

Tendency to respond fearfully to anxiety symptoms because its hard to separate conditioning and cognitive explanation in panic (emotional response associated with internal and external cues; seeing these cues instills more fear even with no evidence of danger present)

Social Contributions for Anxiety

Stressful social life events can trigger biological/psychological vulnerabilities to anxiety

Triple Vulnerability Theory (3): an integrated model

1) Generalized biological vulnerability

2) Generalized psychological vulnerability

3) Specific psychological vulnerability

Comorbidity of Anxiety and Related Disorders

Comorbidity = the co-occurrence of 2 or more disorders in a single individual

Shows that disorders share common features and vulnerabilities, but they are triggered differently

Generalized Anxiety Disorder

Characterized by intense, uncontrollable, unfocused, chronic, and continuous worry that is distressing and unproductive, accompanied by physical symptoms of tenseness, irritability, and restlessness.

-In order to be diagnosed: must be at least 6 months of excessive anxiety and worry; difficult to turn off or control the worry process, being easily fatigued, irritability, muscle tension, sleep disturbance

Most common anxiety disorder

Treatment of Generalized Anxiety Disorder

-Both drug and psychological: Benzodiazepines (can impair cognitive and motor functioning - highly addictive) and Cognitive Behavioral Treatment (confrontation and coping methods)

Causes brought by Generalized Anxiety Disorder (4)

1) Show less responsiveness on most physiological measures, cardiac vagal tones, leading to autonomic inflexibility (autonomic restrictors)

2) Allocate more attention to move readily sources of threat (especially if personal)

3) Develop early onset of uncontrollability/danger in important life events

4) Significant stress make apprehensive and vigilante -> leads to worry

Panic Disorder and Agorphobia

PD: Recurrent unexpected panic attacks accompanied by concerns about future attacks and/or lifestyle change to avoid future attacks

A: Anxiety about being in places or situations from which escape might be difficult

In order to be diagnosed with Panic Disorder or Agoraphobia:

PD: person must experience an unexpected panic attack and develop substantial anxiety over the possibility of having another attack; implications of the attack or its consequences (each attack is like impending doom)

A: Marking someone or some place as "safe" with no special characteristics in place

Nocturnal Panic

- Occurs more often between 1:30am - 3;30am

-Happens after a few hours of falling asleep

-Most wake up with the feeling that they are dying because the "transition" between sleep states is a frightening sensation to an individual with panic disorder

-Caused by "learned alarm" conditioning

-Treatment: drugs affecting noreadrenergic serotonergic or GABA; CBT (slow exposure)

Causes brought by Panic Disorder (4)

1) Generalized biological vulnerability (Alarm reaction to stress)

2) Anxiety sensitivity: tendency to perceive anxiety as harmful (75% of PD patients high on this; Personal history of illness or injury e.g. respiratory; Vicarious observation of illness or injury)

3) Conditioning (learned helplessness)

4) Generalized psychological vulnerability (Anxiety about future attacks, hypervigilance, Increase interoceptive awareness)

Panic Disorder Treatment (5)

1) Psychological (Psychoeducation)

2) Exposure - based (situational and interoceptive) e.g. Crowds, Hyperventilate

3) Cognitive restructuring (What's the likelihood that I will have a heart attack? How likely is it that i will get in a car crash?)

4) Relaxation

5) High degree of efficacy

Specific Phobia and its 4 types

Unreasonable fear of a specific object or situation that markedly interferes with daily functioning

1) Blood-Injection-Injury

2) Situational Phobia

3) Natural environment Phobia

4) Animal Phobia

Blood-Injection-Injury, Situational Phobia, Natural Environment Phobia, Animal Phobia

BII: irrational fear and avoidance of exposure to blood, injury, or the possibility of an injection victims experience fainting and drop in blood pressure

SP: Anxiety involving enclosed places or public transportation

NEP: Fear of situations or events in nature, especially heights, storms, and water

AP: Irrational fear of animals or insects that usually develops early in life

The Causes (3) and Treatment for Specific Phobias

1) Unusual Traumatic Event

2) Fear of it happening again

3) Experiencing, observing, or being told about danger

Treatment: need consistent exposure-based exercises

Separation Anxiety Disorder

Excessive, enduring fear in some children that harm will come to them or their parents while they are apart

Social Anxiety Disorder

Extreme, enduring, irrational fear and avoidance of social or performance situations

In order to be diagnosed:

-You must have marked fear or anxiety about one or more social situations in fear of being judged

-Social situations already provoke fear/irrational fear

-Persistent for 6+ months

Causes of Social Anxiety and Treatment (2)

1) Preparing to fear angry, critical, or rejecting people

2) Experiencing true trauma

Treatment: CBT

Selective Mutism

A rare childhood disorder characterized by a lack of speech in a one or more settings in which speaking is socially expected (not that the child is incapable, just anxious)

Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Enduring, distressing emotional disorder that follows exposure to severe helplessness - or fear-inducing threat. The victim re-experiences that trauma, avoids stimuli associated with it, and develops a numbing of responsiveness and an increased vigilance and arousal

In order to be diagnosed with PTSD: (5)

1) Exposure to a traumatic event during which an individual experiences or witnesses death, actually or threatened serious injury, or actual or threatened sexual violation

2) Re-experienced event through memories and nightmares

3) Tries to avoid any trauma - numb to emotional responsiveness

4) Chronically over-aroused, quick to anger, and easily startled

5) Reckless and destructive behavior//dissociative behavior