CH23: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

4 general functions of the respiratory system for gas exchange:

• ___: at lungs

• ___: at alveoli 

• ___: at cells 

• ___: at tissues

• ventilation

• pulmonary respiration

• gas transport

• systemic respiration

Parts of the upper respiratory and lower respiratory:

• Upper resp =___

• Lower resp = ___

• external nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx

• trachea, bronchi, lungs

1. Know the serveral structures to acquire oxygen and remove carbon dioxide

basically all the parts of resp tract

Basic structures of the nose/nasal cavity: functions

• external nose: skin-covered ___ cartilage; 2 parts… 

• ___ :aka nostrils

• ___:lines inside of nares

  a. what epithelium type?

• ___: boney ridges on lateral walls; opens into what 2 things?

• hyaline

• nares

• vestibules

• simple squamous epithelium

• conchae

• paranasal sinus + nasolacrimal duct

Pharynx 3 parts:

• ___ (has pharyngeal tonsils)

• ___ (has palatine and lingual tonsils)

• ___

nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx

Larynx parts:

Unpaired cartilages

• ___ cartilage (adams apple)

• ___ cartilage (larynx base)

• ___ (made of elastic cartilage; prevents food from entering trachea)

Paired cartilages: what 3 things?

Vocal cords

• ___: true vocal cords

• ___: fake vocal cords

• thyroid

• cricoid

• epiglottis

• arytenoid, corniculate, cuneiform

• vocal folds

• vestibular folds

TRACHEA

• what epithelium?

• does this act as mucociliary escalator?

• how many cartilage rings?

• which muscle is located posteriorly?

• Branches into R/L ____ at the carina

• ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium w/goblet cells

• yes

• 15-20

• trachealis muscle

• primary bronchi

3 layers surrounding lungs:

• ___ (innermost)

• ___ (middle): filled w/pleural fluid

• ___(outer): adheres to lungs

• visceral pleura

• pleural cavity

• parietal pleura

• Bronchodilation (bc relaxed smooth muscle) = increased or decreased air flow?

• Bronchoconstriction (bc contracted smooth muscle) = increased or decreased air flow?

  • too much bronchoconstriction causes?

• increased

• decreased

• asthma attack

order from terminal bronchioles to alveoli?

terminal bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, alveoli

• Type 1 pneumocytes function? 

• Type 2 pneumocytes function?

• which pneumocyte is the MAJORITY?

• ___: type of macrophage; removes debris

• gas exchange

• secretes surfactant for easier alveoli expansion

• type 1

• dust cells

• alveoli lined with what epithelium?

• this relates to what type of pneumocyte?

• which 2 parts of respiratory membranes are where pulmonary gas exchange happens?

• simple squamous

• type 1

• alveoli and capillaries

• how many lobes does right lung have?

• how many lobes does left lung have?

3, 2

2 sources of blood to lungs?

pulmonary and systemic circulation

1. Pulmonary circulation:

   • describe the flow?

2. Systemic circulation

   • describe the flow?

• right side of heart via pulmonary artery > gets oxygenated in lungs > pulmonary veins into left side of heart 

• O2 blood travels through bronchi tissue > bronchial arteries (supplies blood to branches/supporting parts) > capillaries > bronchial veins (for deoxygenated blood to exit) > drains into azygos vein

THORACIC WALL

• composition: thoracic vertebrae, ribs, costal cartilages, sternum, associated muscles.

• thoracic cavity: space enclosed by the ___ and ___

thoracic wall, diaphragm

• muscles for inspiration?

  ***hint: DEPS****

  • which specific muscles for QUIET inspiration

  • which specific muscles for FORCED inspiration

• muscles of expiration?

  ***hint: TIA***

  • which specific muscles for QUIET expiration

  • which specific muscles for FORCED expiration

• diaphragm, external intercostals, pectoralis minor, scalene muscles

• diaphragm + external intercostals

• pectoralis minor + scalene muscles

• transverse thoracic muscle, internal intercostals, abdominis

• diaphragm + external intercostals

• Internal intercostals + abs

• boyles law equation?

• is the relationship bxn pressure and volume proportional or inverse?

• ____: sum of the individual pressures of each gas (ergo sum of partial pressures)

  • what are the specific individual gases (in atmosphere)?

• henrys law: concentration of gas in liquid depends on what 2 things?

  • Ex: soda bottle; when soda is inside container = its under pressure = CO2 ___…. opening the bottle = released pressure = dissolved CO2 leaves the soda

• P=k/V

• inverse

• daltons law

• nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide

• partial pressure and gas’s solubility

• dissolves

air flows down its pressure gradient from ___

• does it flow high—>low for both inspiration and expiration?

• high to low

• yes

• ____: measures volume moving in/out of resp.system

• ____: air inspired/expired with each breath (btw a breath is 1 inhale + 1 exhale)

  • air volume in ml?

• ____: forcefully inspired air after tidal volume 

  • air volume in ml?

• ____: forcefully expired air after tidal volume 

  • air volume in ml?

• ___: remaining volume after forceful expiration

  • air volume in ml?

• spirometer

• tidal volume

• 500ml

• inspiratory reserve volume

• 3000ml

• expiratory reserve volume

• 1100ml

• residual volume

• 1200ml

• ____: breaths per minute 

• ____: TOTAL air volume in/out resp.system per minute 

  • equation?

• ____: air available for gas exchange per minute 

  • Anatomic dead space: space in resp.tract that DONT participate in gas exchange; includes spaces extending from ___ all the way to ____

  • Physiological dead space: _____

• respiratory rate

• minute volume

• tidal volume X respiratory rate

• alveolar ventilation

• nasal cavity

• terminal bronchi

• anatomical dead space + gas volume of some alveoli that underperform in gas exchange 

Be able to identify the anatomic dead space of the respiratory system and physiological dead space (disorders that cause this condition)

• anatomic dead spaces = nasal cavity —> terminal bronchioles

• non-anatomic dead space = resp bronchioles —> alveoli

• LATER bc we dont know the disorders yet

• ___: air pressure outside body

• ___: air pressure inside alveoli

• At rest: alveolar pressure = atmospheric pressure 

• Start of inspiration: alveolar pressure is ____ than atmospheric pressure bc thoracic/lung volume has increased

• End of inspiration: alveolar pressure = atmospheric pressure (bc theres no more air flow)

• Start of expiration: alveolar pressure is __ than atmospheric pressure bc thoracic/lung volume decreased

• end of expiration: alveolar pressure = atmospheric pressure (bc theres no more air flow)

• atmospheric pressure

• alveolar pressure

• less

• greater

• what 2 things are required for exhalation?

  • ____: lungs decrease in size after being stretched bc of elastic recoil and surface tension

  • ___: elastic fibers in alveoli return to original shape after being stretched

• lung recoil and elastic recoil

• lung recoil

• elastic recoil

• is it important to have enough ____ to prevent lung collapse

  • how?

• surfactant

• reduces surface tension

• ___: condition common in premature babies bc insufficient surfactant?

• ___: condition where there’s an opening bxn pleural cavity and air = causing loss of pleural pressure = ____

• infant respiratory distress

• pneumothorax

• lung collapse

• 3 factors affecting diffusion of gases through resp.membrane?

• ___ partial pressure is higher in alveoli compared to blood

• ___ partial pressure is higher in blood compared to alveoli 

• membrane thickness, surface area, partial pressure gradient

• O2

• CO2

• how does thinner alveoli/or resp.membrane affect diffusion rate?

• how does increased surface area affect diffusion rate?

• which 2 conditions are caused by too thick resp.membrane?

  • how does this affect diffusion rate

• which 2 conditions lead to decreased surface area?

• increased

• increased

• yes

• pneumonia and tuberculosis

• decreased diffusion rate

• emphysema and lung cancer

Partial pressures of O2 and CO2 in various areas of the body for gas exchange:

• Alveoli (104mmHg) & Pulmonary capillaries (40mmHg)

• Since it PP for O2 is higher in alveoli = O2 moves ___ concentration gradient into pulmonary capillaries

• Theres a slight decrease of O2 PP in blood in pulmonary veins (95mmHg) bc its some of the oxygenated blood gets mixed with deoxygenated blood from pulmonary arteries 

• Blah blah… but in the end, by the time blood reaches venous end of capillaries = ___ of O2 PP is achieved

• down

• equilibrium

• 2 ways O2 is transported?

• 3 ways CO2 is transported (and their respective percentages)?

• haldane effect____: binds to hemoglobin better when _ is let go from the hemoglobin

• hemoglobin and plasma

• bicarb (70%), hemoglobin (23%), plasma (7%)

• CO2

• O2

• what cells make carbonic anhydrase?

• what does carbonic anhydrase produce + how does it do this?

  • what does carbonic acid dissociate into?

• rbc

• carbonic acid (H2CO3); made from reverse catalyzing water and H2O

• HCO3 (bicarb) and H+

• does CO2 or O2 make blood more acidic?

• does CO2 or O2 make blood more basic?

• CO2

• O2

CARBONIC ACID-BICARBONATE BUFFER SYSTEM

• function of carbonicacid-bicarbonate buffer system?

• bicarb (HCO3) is called “____” of this system

• If theres increased H+ ions in blood….

  • excess H+ is removed by combining H+ with bicarb = ____ is formed > dissociates into ___ and ___ > now there’s more CO2 in blood > triggers ____ resp.rate = blood pH is now ____

• If theres decreased H+ ions in blood…

  • (blood is basic or acidic?) > carbonic acid dissociates into ___ > triggers ___ resp.rate > blood retains more CO2 > blood pH is now ___

• help resist blood pH changes

• alkaline reserve

• carbonic acid

• CO2 and H2O

• increased

• basic

• basic (high pH)

• H+

• increased

• acidic (low pH)

does breathing plays major role in carbonic acid bicarbonate system?

yes

• normal pH of blood?

• Understand how O2 and CO2 diffuse bxn the alveoli and lung’s capillaries:

  • CO2 diffuses into blood > forms carbonic acid > dissociation of carbonic acid > chloride shift > O2 diffuses out of blood via capillaries > H+ binds to hemoglobin > CO2 binds to hemoglobin

• 7.35-7.45

Bohr effect: effect of ___ on oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve

• when pH declines = amount of O2 bound to hemoglobin increases or decreases?

• when temp increases = amount of O2 bound to hemoglobin increases or decreases?

• pH and CO2

• decreases

• decreases

• increased body temperature = ___ hemoglobin bound to oxygen = more oxygen released = metabolism ___

• increased body temperature = ATP production ___ = more ___ produced = the low pH triggers ___ respiration rate

• decreased

• increased

• increased

• CO2

• increased

____: center in brain for regulating breathing; split in 2 parts…

• _____: SETS the normal involuntary rhythm of breathing (aka ____)

• _____: receives signals from chemoreceptors and mechanoreceptors to MODIFY respiratory rhythm…

  • ____ regulates to pH and O2/CO2  

  • ____ respond to pH from exercise

• medullary respiration center

• ventral resp group

• eupnea

• dorsal resp group

• chemoreceptors

• mechanoreceptors

• what is the function of the pons, which works w/medullary respiration center?

    

• switch bxn inspiration and expiration

which nerve controls the diaphragm?

phrenic nerve

TERMS

• ___: absence of breathing 

• ___: increased resp.rate

• ___: difficult labored breathing 

• ___: lower than normal O2 levels

  • is this detected by chemoreceptors or mechanoreceptors?

• ___: greater than normal CO2 levels

• ___: lower than normal CO2 levels

• apnea

• tachypnea

• dyspnea

• hypoxia

• chemoreceptors

• hypercapnia

• hypocapnia

SAY YES

• When blood CO2 drops > homeostasis disturbed > meduallary chemoreceptors detect increased blood pH (basic) so it signals decreased respiration rate (via decreasing respiratory muscle contraction rate) > allows body to  retain more CO2 > blood pH drops (more acidic) > homeostasis restored

• When blood CO2 rises > homeostasis disturbed > medullary chemoreceptors detect increased blood pH (acidic) so it signals increased respiration rate (via increasing respiratory muscle contraction rate) > more O2 expelled into lungs > pH rises (blood more basic) > homeostasis restored

yes

• ___: due to irritants (infection or cigarette smoke)

  • what can this progress into?

• ____: decreased surface area (bc intense coughing destroys alveolar walls)

• Lung cancer: decreased surface area; this affects epithelium of what tract?

• ___: due to excess bronchoconstriction 

• ____: CO binds stronger to hemoglobin than O2 does (=so decreased O2 hemoglobin affinity)

• ____: at-risk babies are placed on monitors that warn if their breathing stops 

  • is there a know cause for this?

• Asphyxiation: caused by what 2 diseases?

  • its bc both of these diseases cause decreased pulmonary respiration!

• bronchitis

• emphysema (COPD)

• emphysema (COPD)

• resp tract

• asthma attack

• carbon monoxide poisoning

• sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)

• no known cause

• tetanus (rigid paralysis) and botulism (flaccid paralysis)

• which effect focuses on O2 hemoglobin affinity?

• which effect focuses on CO2 hemoglobin affinity?

• bohr effect

• Haldane effect