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Ancien Régime

The political and social system in France before the Revolution, characterized by absolute monarchy and feudal privileges.

Louis XVI

The King of France who was executed during the Revolution; his policies contributed to the social unrest.

Jacques Necker

Finance minister to Louis XVI who advocated for reforms to help alleviate France's financial crisis.

Storming of the Bastille

A key event on July 14, 1789, which marked the beginning of the French Revolution.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

A fundamental document of the French Revolution outlining individual freedoms and the rights of citizens.

The August Decrees

A series of decrees passed in August 1789 that abolished feudalism in France.

Revolutionary groups

Various factions involved in the Revolution, each with different ideologies and goals.

Counter-revolutionary groups

Groups that opposed the revolutionary changes and sought to restore the monarchy.

Economic problems during Revolution

Issues such as food shortages and inflation that destabilized the French economy and fueled unrest.

Coup of 1799

The overthrow of the Directory led by Napoleon Bonaparte, increasing his power in France.

First Consul

The title held by Napoleon Bonaparte after his rise to power, allowing him to enact significant reforms.

Napoleon's reforms

Changes in legal, educational, social, and financial systems instituted during his rule.

Industrial Revolution

A period of rapid industrial growth and technological advancement in Britain from 1750 to 1850.

Agricultural Revolution

A significant increase in agricultural production due to improvements in farming techniques and technology.

Factory system

An organizational method of production that brought workers and machines together in one place.

Urbanization

The process by which cities grow due to increased industrialization, often leading to changes in living conditions.

Child labor

The employment of children in various industries, often under harsh conditions and for low wages.

Luddites

Groups of English workers who destroyed machinery as part of a protest against mechanization during the Industrial Revolution.

Chartists

A working-class movement in Britain that sought political reforms, including the extension of the right to vote.

Zollverein

A customs union among German states established to stimulate trade and economic growth.

Frankfurt Parliament

An assembly that aimed to create a unified German nation, but ultimately failed to achieve its goals.

Austro–Prussian War

A conflict between Austria and Prussia in 1866 leading to the establishment of the North German Confederation.

German Empire

The nation-state formed after the successful unification of Germany in 1871 under Prussian leadership.