SOCI 250

structural functionalism

crime has a purpose in society

* creates jobs
* teaches a moral compass (boundary/rule clarification)
* group unification
* aids in social adaptation/change
* **Emile Durkheim**
* ex. robbery frequency determines level people protect their possession

latent functions of criminal behaviour

unintended/unrecognized consequences of social phenomenon

* ex. abortion laws causing an increase in illegal abortions

manifest functions of criminal behaviour

intended/recognized consequences of social phenomenon

* ex. abortion laws causing more babies born

anomie

state of normlessness in society - behaviour is unknown

* **Emile Durkheim**
* ex. being stranded on a deserted island

strain theory

discrepancy between social goals/aspirations and legitimate capacity to achieve those goals

* **Robert Merton**
* crime results from unfulfilled human aspiration
* ex. wanting to go to college, but can’t afford tuition

*Delinquency and Opportunity* by Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin (1960)

there is a differential availability of illegitimate means

* focuses on low-income communities - who you know and what is available


* strain is caused by the position discontent of an individual


* 3 distinct gang subcultures:
* criminal gang: environments that foster criminal behaviour
* conflict gang: disorganized environment with neither legitimate or illegitimate instruction
* retreatist gang: progression of failures at innovating

*Delinquent Boys: The culture of the gang* by Albert Cohen (1955)

* culture has a significant effect on deviant behaviour among young boys
* culture can determine behaviour, beliefs, interests, prejudices
* school culture caters to middle-class academic

Walter Reckless - containment theory (1961)

* inner and outer self control affects person’s likelihood to commit crime
* ex. personal sense of right and wrong
* inner containment - strong is:
* self-concept
* goal direction
* tolerance of frustration
* identification with lawful norms

Focal Concerns

socialization into cultural beliefs/values determines crime in delinquent boys

* Walter Miller (1958)
* 6 concerns:


1. trouble: excitement and toughness
2. toughness: prove themselves
3. smartness: street smarts
4. excitement: seek out thrills
5. fate: their future is already decided
6. autonomy: independent

*Crime and the American Dream* by Steven Messner and Richard Rosenfeld (1993)

social institutions have consistently failed to make American Dream of economic success possible through legitimate means

* Strain Theory

Life-course Developmental Theory (Nagin, Farrington and Moffitt, 1995)

quality and quantity of social bonds fluctuate over our lives, and can have effect on crime committed

* weak ties are important (jobs, opportunities)
* troubled family and friend life as a youth can have lifelong effects
* affected by turning points in life

social ecology

social disorganization theory, differential social organization

social disorganization theory

ecological differences in levels of crime in different neighbourhoods are based on structural/cultural factors shaping social order

* ex. self regulations in rural communities

differential social organization

crime rate of group is determined by extent to which group is organized in favour or against crime

* ex. growing up in a gang family

*The Polish Peasant in Europe and America* by Florian Znaniecki and William Thomas (1920)

discussed why crime rates increased dramatically when Poles immigrated to US

* strain theory - racism, language barrier, skills
* environment changed, they didn’t bring crime with them
* factors contributing to neighbourhood character


1. degree of cultural heterogeneity
2. high degree of mobility
3. no development of community base

4 steps to community stability (Robert Park and Ernest Burgess)

1. Invasion
2. Conflict - poor communities don’t get past here
3. Accommodation
4. Assimilation

concentric-circle theory

cities develop from inner city to suburbs in concentric rings

* each has set of environmental/social characteristics
* Ernest Burgess (1925)

Oscar Newman - Defensible Space

good spaces = safe environment

* crime prevention through environmental design
* spaces should not attract crime or generate fear

conventional crime

crime classified in criminal code/agreed upon as bad

larceny

unlawful taking/carrying away of property belonging to another individual

* shoplifting

breaking and entering

unlawful entry of a structure to commit a felony/theft

* nothing has to be stolen to lay charge
* breaking in and stealing something = charged with two crimes
* no direct confrontation
* three categories: residential, business, non-residential private structures
* more b&es happen in summer
* rational choice theory

criminal distance theory

observed relationship between distance of target from offender’s home and likelihood the offender will attack

crime clearance rates

proportion of reported crimes solved by police

crime displacement effect

crime is not actually prevented, criminal moves to another target

* ex. home security

robbery

theft of another’s property with threat of physical violence against victim

* includes commercial, highway, street, armed, strong-armed, drug-related robbery, and home invasion

robbery trends

* most robbers only commit robbery as a crime
* 90% committed by young men
* money most commonly stolen

explaining robbery

* high unemployment among young men
* learning theory: opportunistic vs professional robbers, often start young

assault

unlawful physical harm committed against victim

level 1 assault

no serious bodily harm intended/inflicted

* 85% of assault charges laid

level 2 assault

use of weapon, infliction of bodily harm

* 10% of all assault charges laid

level 3 assault

intention to commit serious bodily harm (aggravated assault)

* 5% of assault charges

low crime

get caught quickly, sporadic

middle crime

some knowledge/planning beforehand

high crime

don’t get caught quickly

Cybercrime

illegal activity using computer equipment/technology

* ransomware, revenge porn, identity theft, fraud (most), bullying, criminal harassment, intimidation

cybercrime trends

* costs Canada $5 billion/yr
* rapidly accelerating and increasing
* younger generations are more conscious of online presence

fraud

unlawful use of cheating or deception to obtain something of value

* mostly committed out of economic need
* done by individuals or

7 deadly sins hackers exploit

1. apathy
2. curiosity
3. gullibility
4. courtesy
5. diffidence
6. greed
7. thoughtlessness

lifestyle exposure theory

probability of victimization varies by time, space, social setting

* amount of time spent in public spaces, type of neighbourhood, time of day, amount of time spent with non-family members
* Hindelang, 1978

equivalent groups hypothesis

offender and victim share similar characteristics

proximity hypothesis

some people put themselves at risk by choosing a high-risk lifestyle - bad choices

deviant place hypothesis

some areas are more conductive to criminal activity

routine activity approach (Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson)

crime is a rational choice - occurs when 3 elements converge:


1. motivated offender
2. suitable target
3. absence of capable guardian

corporate crime

committed by high profile groups/businesses to max profits illegally - high class individuals with legitimate corporate fronts

* crimes against economy, crimes against the environment, crimes against consumers, crimes against employees
* ex. child labour, offshore accounts, opioid crisis, tax evasion, illegal dumping, poaching, market manipulation
* no standard legal definitions

white-collar crime

illegal activities conducted by employees and officers for personal gain or benefit of the company

victimless crime

no identifiable victim - activity is consensual or directed against a corporate entity

G10

group of 10 - participate in general arrangements to borrow

* Canada is part of it

regulating corporate crime

* poorly enforced, ineffective deterrents
* dealt with as fraud or embezzlement
* typical punishment rationale is retribution and just deserts

ponzi scheme

promise high return rate by giving away other ponzi scheme people’s money

corporate criminal

person of respectability and high social status in course of their occupation (Edwin Sutherland, 1949)

* high status allows access to materials, power to fire, invisibility, afford legal team

tax evasion

1. bank country residency
2. non-domestic status
3. corporate accounts
4. bank account in other country
5. smuggle cash

The Paradise Papers

leaked info about offshore accounts for many major businessmen and figures

Competition Act (1889) - Canada

An Act to provide for the general regulation of trade and commerce in respect of conspiracies, trade practices and mergers affecting competition

crimes against the economy

violations that contravene federal/provincial statutes

* goal is to make the most money
* tax evasion, stealing patents, buying up small businesses, violations of regulations governing stock market

crimes against environment

corporate practices resulting in pollution, depletion, degradation of environment

* oil spills, improper disposal of hazardous environment, illegal denuding of land, improper safety mechanisms

crimes against consumers

activities aimed at gaining extra profit at expense of consumers'

* price fixing, deceptive advertising, marketing/selling defective products

crimes against employees

physical harm, inhumane employment conditions, arbitrary dismissal

crimes against humanity

legal activities but violate accepted human values

* labour practices in 3rd world countries
* establishment of free trade zones

external causes of corporate crime

* environmental uncertainty
* market structure
* strain
* culture of competition

internal causes of corporate crime

* internal organization control (upper class are willing to take more risks, more likely to be punished)
* individual control
* techniques of neutralization

what creates internal opportunity for corporate crime?

* high turnover of mid-level managers (don’t know what to look for in workplace culture)
* too much financial authority resting with only a few senior managers
* inadequate channels for reporting crime
* unhappy workers - want to damage the company

Barriers to combatting corporate crime

* dismissing it as a victimless crime
* corporate crimes are laundered through (pro-business ideology, don’t want to cut revenue/funding)
* definitions are varied
* absence of reliable data

explaining corporate crime

1. differential association
2. conflict theory
3. neutralization: temporary neutralization of values preventing someone from committing crime
4. culture of denial: extent of corporate crime is unknown
5. stress/strain

**learning perspective**

deviance is learned from other people - primarily psychology based

* deviance is highly relative, deliberate, and intentional (actively sough out and learnt)

types of learning deviance

1. contextualized: associative subcultural theory
2. indirect-imitative learning
3. informal learning
4. formal instruction

**Imitation theory of crime** (Gabriel Tarde, 1890)

3 laws of imitation


1. law of close contact
2. law of imitation of superiors by inferiors
3. law of insertion

**differential association** (Edwin Sutherland, 1947)

association with different groups leads to crime

* deviance occurs when individuals feel a situation is appropriate for stepping beyond normative boundaries - innovation
* deviance socially learned through frequent negative influences
* psychology + symbolic interactionism

differential reinforcement theory

crime is learned behaviour reinforced through consequence

* Differential Association variation

differential association-reinforcement

learn social skills through operant conditioning controlled by stimuli following behaviour

micro-level interactions

social-process theories - learning interactions

* differential association, social learning, labelling

**containment theories**

outer and inner containments are required for a person to develop restrained law-abiding behaviour

personal containment

self-control mechanisms created through socialization

social containment

imposed controls of family, school, popular culture, religion

Ivan Nye - Containment Theory

4 types of control:


1. internal
2. indirect: outer controls - not formal punishments
3. direct: outer controls - formal punishments
4. legitimate needs satisfaction: need to belong has to be fulfilled

containment theory - multi-systemic therapy

focus on parenting skills to treat high risk juvenile offenders to prevent serious crime in the future

containment theory - techniques of neutralization

trying to deny committing a crime to avoid feelings of guilt


1. denial of responsibility
2. denial of injury
3. denial of victim
4. condemnation of condemners
5. appeal to higher loyalties (teaching a lesson)

containment theory - drift

deviants can drift in and out of commitment to deviant or dominant values, resulting in episodic deviance

subterranean values

values that exist in society and aren’t talked about

* violence

**labelling theory**

negative labelling can predispose people to feel like outcasts

* deviance is made worse by labelling and punishment by authorities


* crime is relative
* discrimination and racism hold major significance
* criminalization has to be seen as legitimate by the public
* moral entrepreneurs create laws and norms

moral entrepreneurs

use their power/influence to shape legal system to their advantage - what they believe is a social problem

primary deviance

behaviour running counter to societal norms but not socially recognized or labelled as deviant

* ex. stealing a candy bar from a store

secondary deviance

deviant behaviour resulting from labelling

gambling

* predominately done by men
* compulsive gamblers often struggle with other addictions/disorders

substance abuse

abuse of alcohol/drugs affect sense of public order because of altered behaviour

* alcohol is not regulated like other drugs
* strong link between substance abuse and criminal activity

Safe Streets Act (Bill M 202)

to criminalize vagrant kids

* fine $85-150 for solicitation and have reason to arrest when they didn’t pay fees
* not dealing with root problem - when you have many people in a criminalized group, it's not individual

containment theory - neoconservative view on crime

* human nature is selfish, weak, hedonistic
* root causes of crime are unimportant
* criminal behaviour largely product of family dysfunction or liberal social values
* soft penalties, rehabilitation, diversion programs don’t help
* street crime is worse than white collar (more fear)
* stiff/long penalties

*Thinking About Crime* by James Q. Wilson

first to discuss neoconservatism - police should have power to “rough up” young people

Broken Windows by Wilson and George Kelling

reasonable policing policies include

* maintain community/social order
* increase foot patrols
* increase private security
* quicker trails and more severe penalties

victimology

relationship between criminals and victims

* importance of victim first recognized by Benjamin Mendelsohn


* neoconservative origin

Victims Bill of Rights Act

* right to information, protection, participation, restitution
* victim services
* victim impact statement

victimization surveys

ask respondents if they have been the victim of a crime - those who have are asked about their experiences and impressions of the justice system

* insight into dark figure of crime, prevalence of certain crimes, impact, risk of victimization
* General Social Survey (GSS) - Statistics Canada, Violence Against Women Survey (1993), surveys on family violence (est. 2001), International Crime Victims Survey (1989-2005)

victim characteristics

* most likely **young** people (15-24), least likely old 65+)
* **women** more likely to be (85 vs 67 per 1000)
* women more likely to be victims of sexual assault and theft
* men more likely to be victims of of robbery and assault
* **higher income homes** more likely to be robbed
* **single people** higher rate of violent victimization
* **Indigenous** over-represented in victimization

victim financial compensation

* property loss recovery: find stuff, offender-paid restitution, insurance
* victims of violence: most apply promptly, civil litigation, litigation against government

victim assistant programs

* court services: assistance with attending court and dealing with justice system
* public education: information about the law and crime prevention
* crisis intervention: support to those who have experienced a negative impact from crime
* victim-offender reconciliation programs: restorative justice

victim precipitation theory

some people make themselves targets for victimization through actions or inaction

* victim blaming

secondary victimization

insensitive, victim-blaming, trauma-compounding behaviour towards victims of violence

* leads to reluctance to seek help

victim impact statements

statement presented by victim during sentencing to describe personal impact of crime

critical criminology

intersectionality of politics and crime

* criminal categories created/defined in Western society to maintain social order and power of privileged
* social difference politicized
* current laws are ineffective
* media representation of crime is biased and sensationalized
* police presence had no effect on crime rates

social development approach

community-based public education used to inform people of risks to their safety to take steps in avoiding becoming victims of crime