Xerxes topic ancient

geography of persian empire

6 million square km at time of Xerxes, caspian sea north, persian gulf and indian ocean south, egypt and ionian coast west, indus river east, various nationalities

topography of persian empire

central part was plateau 1-2km above sea level, centre had salt deserts, treeless and barren mountains around which protect from enemies, poorly watered valleys between them

resources of persian empire

iron, copper, gold etc from quarries, lions, hares, goats, ostriches, cereal crops, wine, fisheries of persian gulf, teak from india, cedar from lebanon

political structure

• kings

• royal princes and nobles

• bow bearer, spear bearer, members of royal family, high ranking courtiers

• important non persians e.g. themistocles

• women and priestesses, royal wives

satrap powers

• civil (highest judicial authority other than king and royal judges, negotiate with foreign states, set and collect tribute to royal treasury)

• military (defence of satrapy, commanded provincial soldiers)

• controlled via royal secretary and king’s eye/ear

social structure

• king

• hereditary land owners, high priests

• skilled craftsmen and merchants

• freedmen and foreigners

• farm workers and artisans (semi free)

• slaves in households or quarries

military structure

• myriad/division (10,000 men) e.g. immortals

• hazarabam/regiment commanded by hazarapatis (1000 men)

• satabam (100 men)

• dathabam (10 men)

• sparabara (individual archers carrying body shield called spara)

military sources

1. behistun inscription mentions 8 of darius’ officers; 6 persians, 1 mede and 1 armenian

2. xenophon wrote that from 5-15 boys were trained in riding, shooting arrows etc.

3. strabo wrote that to get them used to army life, they would train in groups of 50 and had to scavenge, cross country foot races, withstand extreme temps

4. herodotus tells order of procession of persian forces including sacred chariot of ahura mazda

the immortals

picked from elamites, persians and medes, always numbered 10,000, 100 hazarapat were special king;’s bodyguard with spear with silver blade and golden pomegranate. also had bow, hide covered wicker shield, helmet

infantry vs cavalry

infantry or pasti wore loose felt caps, iron scaled armour, wicker shields, long bows, short swords. cavalry or asabara had bows and javelins, chariots where one rode and one shot

persian navy

army and navy always in contact, each trireme had 200 soldiers, each had 30 persian or mede marines to prevent defection

expansion of empire

cyrus the great 560-530 BCE

• revolted against Astyages father ruler of Media

• made cappadocia, armenia and lydia satrapies

• captured all cities of ionia except miletus

• defeated babylonia, presented himself as king chosen by god

cambyses (530-522 BCE)

• demanded daughter from pharaoh amasis for harem, refusal may have impacted invasion of egypt

• invaded parts of africa

• made egypt a satrapy

darius 522-486 BCE

• extended eastern borders

• new satrapy hindush become richest source of revenue for persian empire

religion

• ahura mazda supreme deity

• zoroaster prophet from 7th century BCE
  ahura mazda created 2 opposing forces of truth and the lie

religion sources

darius behistun inscription “by the grace of ahura mazda am i king; ahura mazda has granted me the kingdom”

persian concept of kingship

1. ‘the great king of an empire’ (must make laws, continue expansion)

2. religious role model (must believe in ahura mazda, decide what is the truth and lie)

3. warriorship (leading army, marry son to daughter of another king)

4. mythical hero (defending against hostile forces)

5. king in state (supported by military and civilians)

6. king in high (fair judge, palace and bodyguards)

timeline of xerxes life

519 BCE- xerxes born

498- recognised as successor to darius

486- became king

465- assassinated

main family members

• achaemenes (xerxes brother, satrap of egypt)

• amestris (xerxes wife)

• ariamenes (xerxes brother)

• ariamenes (xerxes uncle, commander of palace guard)

• artaphernes (half brother of darius, satrap of ionia)

• artaxerxes (successor of xerxes)

• atossa (mother of xerxes)

rise to prominence ancient sources

1. ‘the period of a boy’s education is between 5 and 20, taught 3 things; to ride, use bow and speak the truth’- herodotus

2. ‘darius my father made me the greatest after himself…by the will of ahura mazda i became king’- xerxes on block of limestone at persepolis

3. “xerxes would have become king regardless due to the immense power of atossa”- herodotus

rise to prominence modern sources

1. M.C Root theorises that Artabazanes was original candidate for throne (older half brother) but darius wanted to strengthen ties to cyrus the great through atossa

2. pierre briant rejects this and says it was bc if he chose artabazanes, he would have been agreeing with gobryas family who were in opposition to his objectives

satrapy system

23 administrative districts, satraps appointed by king, maintained peace, tax collection, conscription, local govs were fine as long as they paid taxes and complied with conscription

roads and communication

• 2500km highway ‘royal road’ from susa to sardis protected by 100 sentry fortifications

• fastest communication network in ancient world

• communication and trade by sea

• under darius i trade with egypt was improved with canal linking nile and red sea

coinage, weights and measures

• standardised throughout empire

• darius introduced gold daric and silver coins

• weight called karsha introduced during darius reign

• e.g. royal cubit black limestone ruler

egyptian revolt

• 486 BCE

• inspired by greek defeat of persians or increased taxes

• prime opportunity bc transition from darius to xerxes

• suggested that xerxes imposed harsher taxes

• xerxes led army into egypt and crushed revolt in 2 years

egyptian revolt evidence

1.”in the year after darius’ death…he reduced the country to a condition of worse servitude than it had ever been and then turned it over to his brother achaemenes”- herodotus

“xerxes took pharonic titles…kept a firm control over revenue”- granger

babylonian revolt

• 2 revolts, delayed prep for greek invasion

• originally thought to be in 484 led by Bel-Shimmami and put down by megabyses, 2nd revolt 2 years later

• newly published cunieform documents found that both happened in 484 within 6 months of each other

• herodotus originally said they stole and melted golden statue of Bel-Marduk chief god of babylon and ended cult and diverted euphrates river through middle of city

• revised account stolen statue simply a votive offering, river didnt change

babylonian revolt evidence

1. “neither destruction nor cultic impairment can be demonstrated”- henkelman

religious intolerance sources

1. daeva inscription xerxes ““when i became king there is among these countries one which was in commotion, by the grace of Ahura mazda I smote that country and put it in its place”

2. “among these countries was a place where previously daveas [demons] were worshipped… there i worshipped Ahura Mazda reverently”

3. grainger says this is a copy of the behistun inscription, propaganda, daeva may not mean demon

4. bel-marduk statue babylon may or may not have been stolen

5. josephus says xerxes continued to pay for temple at jerusalem

6. burning of greek temples suggested to be politically motivated rather than religious

ancient interpretations of xerxes

1. persepolis relief xerxes sitting on throne upheld by representatives of subject people

2. entrance to palace of xerxes, relief of him fighting lion

3. “in the military arts they judged him to be most eager to learn”- anabasis

modern interpretations of xerxes

1. from 19th century historians were swayed by orientalist view of persia as despots who threatened greek democracy

2. 1980s scholars e.g. MC root and briant focused on translation of non greek sources

3. “xerxes brought main buildings to completion…threw into shade his father’s cruder sculptures”- olmstead

4. “it is impossible to accept at a face value the judgement of xerxes that has come from greek sources especially herodotus”- mayhofer

5. “the image of the cowardly, effeminate persian monarch has exercised a strong influence through the centuries…contrasted with ‘western’ bravery and masculinity”- kuhrt

building program of persepolis

according to inscription carved in terrace, founded by darius in 518 bce and completed over a century later by artaxerxes, purpose was seat for achaemenid kings, receptions, festivities, showing off wealth

apadana

• largest building

• begun by darius finished by xerxes

• used for receptions by kings

• 13 of 72 columns still stand on platform

• two large stairways north and east

• reliefs depicting new years festival, reps from 23 nations of empire, delegates in native attire, carrying gifts of loyalty

throne hall

• 2nd largest building aka hundred column hall

• started by xerxes finished by artaxerxes

• 8 stone doorways with reliefs of throne scenes

• northern portico colossal stone bulls

• originally for receptions, later used to display wealth which didnt fit in treasury

gate of xerxes

• north of apadana

• broad descending staircase

• xerxes built it as ‘gate of all countries’, visitors had to pass through to get to throne hall

• one spacious room with stone roof supported by 4 columns with bell shaped bases

• two man bulls at east entrance with trilingual inscription saying xerxes built gate

treasury

• adjacent to throne hall

• armoury and royal storehouse

• wealth came from conquered nations and annual tribute

• 2 large stone reliefs depicting darius i being approached by dignitary, court officials behind him

palace of xerxes

• twice as large as darius’

• similar decorative features on doors and windows

• depicts servants with ibexes

harem

• where royal ladies lives

• constructed in L shaped form

• reliefs of xerxes entering with attendants with parasol

• main wing had 6 apartments in 2 rows each with large pillared room

• 2 stairways connected west wing with palace of xerxes

council hall

• access through grand stairway

• 2 official entrances, one secret one led to harem

herodotus story of masistes death

1. xerxes arranged marriage between his son and masistes’ daughter (his niece) to get to masistes’ wife

2. wooed the niece instead

3. amestris wove xerxes a colourful mantle which he gave to artaynte the niece who flaunted it

4. amestris plotted against masistes’ wife, asked for boon on king’s birthday, got guards to mutilate her

5. masistes went to bactria to start revolt, xerxes sent army to kill him and sons

leadup to xerxes death

• 469 bce 4 years before, persians are defeated by greeks at eurymedon river

• 467 bce 2 years before, persepolis archives reveal famine in persia, shortage of grain, xerxes dismissed 100 high ranking officials

• roman author claudius aelianus says it was because he dug up belus ancient gods tomb and didnt refill with olive oil, inscription saying “things would not improve”

ctesias account of death

• greek physician at court of artaxerxes, claims to have based account on palace archives, limited reliability, we dont know what access he had to royal sources

• xerxes murdered in bed, victim of palace plot, artabanus uncle, aspamitres chief eunuch and artaxerxes

diodorus siculus account

• 1st century BCE

• claimed artbanus and aspamitres murdered xerxes so artbanus could be king

• artbanus told artaxerxes his brother darius did it, got darius killed

• artabanus tried to kill artaxerxes but artaxerxes killed him

justin account

• 3rd century CE

• claims xerxes was hated by his people

• artbanus and sons killed xerxes so he could be king

• convinved artaxerxes it was darius, artaxerxes found truth and killed artabanus and arrested sons

other accounts of xerxes death

• megabyzus xerxes son in law wanted to overthrow

• aspamitres admitted assassins to royal bedchamber

burial of xerxes

• buried near father 5km from persepolis

• tomb hollowed out of cliff face

• sarcophagus carved into rock

impacts of death

• some accounts suggest artaxerxes took throne and assassination attempt 7 years later but found out

• other accounts say artaxerxes faced revolt from younger brother Hystaspes satrap of Bactria, artaxerxes killed all remaining brothers

• libyans revolted against persian rule in egypt

• satrap achaemenes was killed, took 6 years to suppress

• troubles on periphery of empire, heartland remained stable

ancient greek sources xerxes influence

1. aeschylus ‘the persians’ emphasised his hubris “Xerxes whose rashness emptied asia of its men”

2. “he was a coward and retreated after salamis”, “he was lustful and had to kill masistes his brother”- herodotus

3. “xerxes used the greatest intellectual power…his achievements were glittering”- pausanias

modern sources xerxes influence

1. “Xerxes is in tradition the weakling monarch dominated by his eunuchs. Oriental sources depict a very different character”- olmstead

2. “he was a weak ruler with little interest in or aptitude for miltary affairs, who much preferred building programs”- O’Neil