U.S. Political Parties, Electoral Systems, and Congress Structure

Political party

An organization that seeks to influence government by getting members elected to office and coordinating the actions of elected officials in government.

Major parties

Political parties whose members frequently win elections and hold a large share of legislative seats, such as Democrats and Republicans in the U.S.

Color blue

Associated with the Democratic Party.

Color red

Associated with the Republican Party.

Grand Old Party (GOP)

Nickname for the Republican Party.

Elephant symbol

Represents the Republican Party.

Donkey symbol

Represents the Democratic Party.

Conservative ideology

Generally associated with the Republican Party; favors limited government and traditional values.

Liberal ideology

Generally associated with the Democratic Party; favors government action to promote equality and social welfare.

Right

Refers to conservative political beliefs; typically Republican.

Left

Refers to liberal political beliefs; typically Democratic.

Major parties vs Minor parties

Major parties win elections regularly and control government; minor parties rarely win but can influence major party platforms.

Third parties

Another term for minor parties; seek to challenge the two major parties.

Majority party

A party with over half the seats in a legislative body.

Minority party

A party with fewer than half the seats in a legislative body.

Interest group

An association that seeks to influence government policy without running candidates for office.

Party platform

A document outlining a political party's principles, goals, and policy positions on domestic and foreign affairs.

Differences between political parties and interest groups

Parties aim to win elections and control government; interest groups aim to influence policy from the outside.

Two-party system

A democratic political system dominated by two major parties that routinely win legislative seats.

Multiparty system

A system with three or more major political parties that regularly win seats in the legislature.

Single-member district / Winner-take-all system

An electoral system where the candidate who receives the most votes represents the entire district.

Proportional representation (PR) system

An electoral system where parties gain seats in proportion to the number of votes they receive.

Duverger's Law

Theory that winner-take-all systems favor two-party systems, while proportional representation favors multiparty systems.

U.S. party system type

The United States has a two-party system.

Difference between Winner-Take-All and PR systems

Winner-Take-All awards one seat per district to the top vote-getter; PR allocates seats based on vote share. The U.S. uses Winner-Take-All.

Reason for Republican Party rise in 1854

Formed by anti-slavery activists opposing the Kansas-Nebraska Act and the expansion of slavery.

Event that solidified two-party dominance

The Civil War and Reconstruction era cemented the Democratic and Republican parties as the two major parties.

Party realignment

A long-term shift in voter loyalty from one major party to another.

Critical election

An election that results in a major, lasting shift in voter coalitions and party control.

Most important party realignment in recent history

The 1932 election of Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal coalition.

1932 election

It brought working-class voters, minorities, and Southerners into a durable Democratic majority coalition.

Modern party regional alignments

Democratic strongholds: Northeast, West Coast, major cities. Republican strongholds: South, Midwest, rural areas.

Party-in-the-electorate

Voters who identify with a political party or consistently support its candidates.

Party organization

The formal structure of party officials and activists who coordinate strategy and support candidates.

Party-in-government

Elected officials who identify with a party and coordinate governance once in office.

Affective polarization

Strong animosity between partisans; negative feelings toward members of the opposing party.

Pernicious polarization

Extreme division where opposing political groups view each other as enemies or threats to the nation.

Bicameral legislature

A legislature with two chambers, such as the U.S. Congress (House and Senate).

Advantages of bicameralism

Provides checks and balances, more careful lawmaking, and represents both states and population interests.

Disadvantages of bicameralism

Can slow decision-making, create gridlock, and complicate the passage of legislation.

Five differences between House and Senate

House: 435 members, 2-year terms, represents districts, stricter rules, starts revenue bills. Senate: 100 members, 6-year terms, represents states, looser debate rules, confirms appointments/treaties.

Standing committee

Permanent committee responsible for specific policy areas.

Joint committee

Includes members from both chambers; performs advisory or research functions.

Select committee

Temporary committee created for a specific purpose or investigation.

Conference committee

Temporary joint committee formed to reconcile differences between House and Senate versions of a bill.

Party conference (caucus)

Meeting of a party's members in each chamber to elect leaders, set goals, and plan strategy.

Core committees in both chambers

Standing committees.

Party balance on committees

Determined proportionally to each party's strength in the full chamber.

Speaker of the House

Presiding officer and leader of the House majority party; controls agenda and committee assignments.

House Majority Leader

Second-in-command to the Speaker; helps plan legislative strategy and guide party bills.

Senate president pro tempore

Honorary position held by the most senior majority senator; presides when the Vice President is absent.

Senate Majority Leader

Head of the Senate majority party; sets legislative agenda and manages floor debate.

Traditional filibuster

Extended Senate debate used by a minority to block a bill by speaking indefinitely.

Cloture vote

Vote of three-fifths (60 senators) to end debate and overcome a filibuster.

Modern filibuster

Allows senators to block votes without continuous speech; requires cloture to proceed to a vote.

Omnibus spending bill

Single large bill combining multiple appropriations measures into one package.

Budget reconciliation process

Allows certain budget-related bills to pass with a simple majority, bypassing filibuster rules.

How a bill can become law after veto

Congress can override a presidential veto with a two-thirds majority in both chambers.

Chamber where revenue bills must begin

House of Representatives.

What committees do with bills

Study, hold hearings, revise, and decide whether to report them for floor consideration.

Power shift since the 1980s

Power has shifted from congressional committees to party leaders, increasing partisanship.

Votes required to end a filibuster

60 votes (three-fifths of the Senate).

Difference between traditional and modern filibusters

Traditional involved speaking on the floor; modern uses procedural holds without speeches.

Apportionment

Redistribution of House seats among states based on population changes after each census.

One-person, one-vote standard

Supreme Court rule (1964) requiring equal population across districts to ensure equal representation.

Redistricting

Redrawing of congressional district lines by states after reapportionment.

Uncompetitive congressional elections

Elections where one party dominates, leaving little real competition.

Big Sort

Trend of Americans clustering by lifestyle, education, and ideology, leading to more politically uniform regions.

Gerrymandering

Manipulating district boundaries to favor one party or group.

Who conducts reapportionment

The national government, based on U.S. Census results.

Institution that created one-person, one-vote rule

U.S. Supreme Court (Baker v. Carr, 1964).

Level of government responsible for redistricting

State governments.

% of 2022 toss-up House races

Approximately 7% were genuinely competitive.

% of 2000 toss-up House races

Approximately 17% were genuinely competitive.

Greater impact on competitiveness: gerrymandering or Big Sort?

The Big Sort has had a greater long-term impact.

Effects of uncompetitive elections

Lower voter turnout, reduced accountability, and weaker civic engagement.

Malapportionment

Unequal representation caused by differing ratios of voters to representatives across districts or states.

Descriptive representation

The extent to which a legislature's demographic makeup reflects that of the population.

Constituent service

Non-legislative help that members of Congress provide to voters in their districts.

Pork-barrel politics

Federal spending on local projects meant to benefit a legislator's constituents.

Delegate model of representation

Representatives follow their constituents' opinions when making decisions.

Trustee model of representation

Representatives use their own judgment to decide what best serves the public good.

Politico model of representation

Representatives alternate between delegate and trustee roles depending on the issue.

Malapportionment of Congress

The U.S. Senate is one of the most malapportioned upper chambers in the world; the House also shows unequal representation due to population differences.

Population per House member

Each House member represents about 760,000 people, which many scholars consider too high for effective representation.

Benefits of descriptive representation

Increases trust and legitimacy among citizens; ensures diverse perspectives in policymaking.

Congressional descriptive representation patterns

More representative in gender and racial diversity than before, but still disproportionately older, wealthier, and less racially diverse than the nation.

Traditional legislative process (six stages)

1. Bill introduction 2. Committee referral 3. Committee review/amendment 4. Floor debate and vote in first chamber 5. Floor debate and vote in first chamber 6. Consideration in second chamber 7. Presidential approval or veto.