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Sensation
Detecting physical energy (a stimulus) in the environment and converting it to neural energy.
Perception
Process of organizing and interpreting sensory information.
Absolute threshold
Minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time.
Difference threshold
Minimal difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time.
Transduction
Converting one form of energy into another.
Sensory adaptation
The process by which sensory receptors become less responsive to constant stimuli over time, leading to a decrease in awareness of the stimuli.
Perceptual set
Predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.
Context effects
How immediate context can change perception.
Binocular cues
Depth cues that require two eyes, such as retinal disparity.
Monocular cues
Depth cues available to either eye alone, such as relative size and interposition.
Figure vs ground
The tendency to divide visual scenes into a figure (object) and ground (background).
Closure
The tendency to fill in gaps to create whole objects.
Rods
Photoreceptors in the retina responsible for vision in dim light.
Cones
Photoreceptors in the retina responsible for color and detail in bright light.
Dark adaptation
The process of adjusting to dim light.
Light adaptation
The process of adjusting to bright light.
Gestalt
An organized whole; our tendency to integrate pieces into a meaningful whole.
Illusory conjunction
A perceptual mistake where features from multiple objects are incorrectly combined.
Priming
Activation of particular associations often unconsciously.
Spontaneous recovery
Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a pause.
It suggests that learning is not completely erased but can resurface under certain conditions.
Classical conditioning
an unconscious process where an automatic, conditioned response becomes associated with a specific stimulus through repetition.
Operant conditioning
a learning process that uses rewards and punishments to modify behavior
Law of Effect
Behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely.
Positive reinforcement
The presentation of a stimulus that increases the likelihood of a behavior.
Negative reinforcement
The removal of an aversive stimulus that increases the likelihood of a behavior.
Positive punishment
adding a negative consequence to discourage an unwanted behavior.
Negative punishment
The removal of a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.
Sensory memory
Short-lived, fast-decaying memory store.
Working memory
What we are consciously thinking about right now, lasting about 10-15 seconds.
Long-term memory
Essentially unlimited memory capacity for storing information.
Episodic memory
Memory of personally experienced events.
Semantic memory
Memory of general knowledge and facts.
Implicit memory
Non-declarative memory for skills and conditional responses.
Retrieval cues
Any piece of information that aids the retrieval of memories.
Context-dependent memory
Improved recall when the retrieval context matches the encoding context.
Proactive interference
Old information interferes with the learning of new information.
Retroactive interference
New information interferes with the recall of old information.
Misinformation effect
Incorporating misleading information into memory of an event.
Confirmation bias
The tendency to search for and favor information that confirms preexisting beliefs.
Functional fixedness
Inability to see alternative uses for an object.
Availability heuristic
Judging the likelihood of something based on how easily it comes to mind.
Representativeness heuristic
Judging likelihood based on how well it matches a prototype.
Framing
The way information is presented can influence decisions.
