What are three ways to maintain homeostasis during challenging environmental conditions?
Avoiders, conformers, and regulators
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What kind of animals are in low resource availability environments?
Simple communities with short food chains and animals with low metabolic rates
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What types of animals are in high resource availability environments?
Diverse complex communities with highly specialized animals with higher metabolic demands
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What is an adaptation
It is a product of evolution by natural selection that is well matched to an organism’s environment
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What is acclimatization?
functional changes over a period of days or weeks in response to seasonal changes that is usually reversible and involves changes for more than just one environmental factor
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What is acclimation?
change over a period of days to weeks when variable are experimentally manipulated that is usually reversible and involves changes for only one environmental variable
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Is acclimatization or acclimation experimentally driven?
Acclimation
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What is phenotypic plasticity
different phenotypes based on differing environments
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What is developmental plasticity
An irreversible variation of traits that results from variation in the environment and occurs during development
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What is polyphenism
The ability of organisms to produce offspring that have differing phenotypes based on accommodation of seasonal changes
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What is the result of a short term environmental stressor?
Short term reflexes like running
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What is the result of long term environmental pressures
Acclimation/acclimatization in short term and adaptation in long term
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Why don’t animals possess every adaptation imaginable
Some traits are restrictive of environment and due to cost and benefit of those traits and because habitat can change
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How does selection operate?
Must improve fitness, NS acts on individuals,selected traits have a genetic basis, it is a product of prior generational changes, acts on existing traits,
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What are characteristics of an adaptive trait
Must vary, be heritable, and increase fitness
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What are the three types of selectiom
Stabilizing, directional, and disruptive
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What is stabilizing selection
Meets in the middle of traits
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What is directional selection
Favors an extreme trait
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What is disruptive selection
Favors both extremes
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What is correlation selection
Traits become integrated with one another; combination
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What do proteins do
Control metabolic processes, and underlie all cellular processes
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How are proteins formed
In transcription a DNA sequence is transcribed to rna and in translation the sequence is decoded to look at the sequence of amino acids
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What are the mechanisms of short term modulation of proteins
Turn on/off existing proteins by formation of protein complexes, basic almost eric modulation and allosteric modulation by phosphorylation
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what is the formation of protein complexes
protein subunits assemble to form a functional proteins
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what is basic allosteric modulation
it is the binding of molecules to a protein that result in the conformational change to the protein that impacts their function
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what is allosteric modulation by phosphorylation
it is the process by which a phosphate group attaches to a protein and the effect varies from being activated to deactivated, it also changes the conformation of the protein and changes the binding sites
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what is protein kinase
it transfers a phosphate group from ATP to the target molecule
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what is protein phosphatase
it removes phosphate groups from phosphorylated proteins
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what are ways that acclimation/acclimatization modifies protein function to cope with environmental stressors
protein abundance changes in terms of synthesis and degradation, plus five other steps
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why does the change in protein abundance matter
increasing proteins can change the rate of the reaction and this can help an organism cope with environmental challenges
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what is regulation pre-transcription that aids in chromatin accessibility
chromatin must be rearranged to make a gene available for transcription and also important to know that cells can regulate this
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what is the transcriptional control of protein synthesis
RNA polymerase creates a new RNA from DNA by finding where the promotor has put the start sequence for RNA synthesis, a regulatory protein must be bound to the operator site before this can occur
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what is the purpose of gene regulatory proteins
they allow individual genes to be turned off/on, they bind to specific sites on DNA, and they ensure the right genes are switched on at a time for the right cell production
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how do gene regulatory proteins work
there are transcriptional activators and repressors that have positive and negative effects on genes, they control genes, and they have cell memory to replicate cells over and over
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what is RNA processing
gene expression can be regulated at RNA processing stage by alternative splicing
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what is alternative splicing
sections are removed from molecules (introns) and sections that linked (exons), different portions of mRNA are selected as exons and this allows multiple creations of mRNA
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why is alternative splicing important
is it not a random process because it is controlled by regulatory proteins, it can create different proteins
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what is the importance of protein variation
it gives animals a range of options as to which protein to use at a certain time and place
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what is a isoform
same function but different kinetics
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what is the importance of protein isoforms
depending on habitat it is important to have variation in coloration or size
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how does the translational control of protein synthesis work
mRNA may/may not be translated to make proteins so to determine how much protein is made from mRNA understand its lifespan nad how readily things can attach to it; this all leads to regulating the rate of protein synthesis
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how does protein degradation work
if there is structural damages to the protein then a ubiquitin will flag the protein and a proteasome will come in and shred the protein into amino acids for recycling
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what are the modfications to protein functions done in adaptation to cope with environmental stressors
protein evolution
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how are changes in DNA sequences done
genomes can be altered by mutations and single base deletions, and remodeling by recombination events during meiosis; all this recombination leads to physiological changes
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what can changes in DNA sequence lead to
subtle changes in enzyme activity, changes in morphology of proteins, and effects on the expression of other proteins that can all lead to permanent heritable changes
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how has changes in DNA sequence led to important changes
the hox gene that controls the development of types of appendages and embryo has developed to give more clusters to humans and vertebrates
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what are the three properties of enzymes
they are active at low concentrations, increase the rate of reactions but not altered in process, and they do not change the nature of products
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what is a cofactor
metals or organic materials that aid in reaction process
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what environmental factors can influence enzyme function
pH, temperature, and small molecules
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what does a low km mean
high substrate affinity and less substrate is needed to drive the reaction
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what is the conservation of km
structural variations that show similar kinetics in different species under natural conditions
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what is anaerobic metabolism and what is it used for
it is metabolism without oxygen and it is used for short bursts of intense activity that occurs in the cell cytoplasm so there is no need for transporting molecules, however the end products are toxic and it is less efficient than aerobic metabolism
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what is an example of anaerobic metabolism
glycolysis
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what are some fuel sources for glycolysis
glucose is primary source but it is usually stored as glycogen in liver, other sources are fructose and galactose
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what is aerobic metabolism and what are the costs and benefits
it is metabolism with oxygen and it is more efficient at producing ATP then anaerobic, no waste products are toxic
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what are examples of aerobic metabolism
krebs cycle
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what are fuels for aerobic metabolism
carbohydrates, lipids (stored and more efficient for ATP), amino acids
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what is glycogenesis
glycogen synthesis
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what is glycogenolysis
glycogen breakdown
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what is gluconeogenesis
when consumed glucose is low then animals can produce glucose by this process
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what is lipolysis
triacylglycerol is hydrolyzed back to fatty acids and glycerol
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what does metabolic rate tell us
it tells us the overall rate of all physiological activities, resource needs, and the energetic demands from the environment
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what is basal metabolic rate
rate of energy metabolism free from physical, thermal, and psychological stressors including breeding and growing
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what is resting metabolic rate
metabolic rate of unrestrained minimal activity
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what is field metabolic rate
rate of metabolism during normal activity and exposure to extreme temperatures
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how is heat important when measuring metabolism
heat produced is proportional to oxygen consumed and carbon dioxide produced
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what is direct calorimetry
direct measure of heat production
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what is an indirect measure of metabolism
difference of food consumed minus pooped, not taking into account changes in composition or growing/storage
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what is an indirect method of using oxygen for measuring metabolism
oxygen consumed is equivalent to heat produced
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why is the value of metabolic rate higher in the field than in the lab
due to outside pressure like predators and mating systems
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what is the purpose of measuring metabolic rate for wildlife biologists
to get the overall rate of physiological activities, conservation issues, and an index of energetic demands
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what is sustained metabolic rates
time averaged metabolic rates that is measured long enough to measure food consumption rather than depletion
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what is the central limitation hypothesis
the body can only do so much metabolicm
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what is the peripheral limitation hypothesis
each individual system can only do so much
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what are the evolutionary causes of metabolic ceilings
metabolic capacities may be limited to the amount an organism can digest, also with a higher MR there is higher maintenance
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what factors affect an animal’s metabolic rate
temperature, food habits (what they forage for), activity (how much is done in a day) , digestion ( reptiles have slow), time of day
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what is the principle of allocation
each animal has a finite amount of energy and most goes to maintenance and the rest goes growth
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what is an energy maximizer
spend most of the time eating
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what is a time minimizer
less time feeding and more time with no activity
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what is scaling
size-related effects
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what is rubner’s surface rule
small animals have a larger SA/V
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what is allometric scaling
not proportionate body size to limbs
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what can affect differences in basal metabolic rate
taxonomy and life history traits
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what is ambient temperature
temperature of animals surroundings
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what are the two thermal strategies
tolerance and regulation
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what is a tolerance thermal strategy
body temperature varies with ambient temperature
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what is a regulating thermal strategy
body temperature does not vary with ambient temperature
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what are biochemical effects of temperature
temp can affect functional states of molecules and rate of tissue processes
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how does temperature affect the functional states of molecules
molecules will change shapes at different temperatures and possibly the function; thus changing enzyme rates, as well as changes in membrane fluidity
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what is conduction
the transfer of thermal energy from one object to another, flowing from warm to cold; and the rate depends on how conductive the material is
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what is insulation
layer of material that reduces thermal exchange
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what is convection
flow of heat between two things by the movement of a liquid
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what is radiation
emission of electromagnetic radiation from the sun
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how does color affect thermoregulation
having melanin allows more protection from the sun
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what is evaporation
water molecules absorbing heat and making a transition from liquid to gas
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what is a poikilotherm
variable body temperature
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what is a homeotherm
stable body temperature
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what is an ectotherm
environment determines body temperature
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what is bergmanns rule
animals living in colder environments tend to be larger
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what is allens rule
animals in colder climates tend to have smaller extremeties
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