Anat/phys midterm exam

Transverse (axial) plane

Divides into superior and inferior portions

Sagittal plane

Vertical plane that divides into right and left sides

Coronal (frontal) plane

Divides into front and back or ventral and dorsal

Integumentary system

Function: barrier to invading organisms and chemicals; temperature control

Organs: skin, hair, subcutaneous tissue

Skeletal system

Function: supports and moves body; protects internal organs; mineral storage; blood formation

Organs: bones, cartilage, ligaments, bone marrow

Muscular system

Function: locomotion; heat production

Organs: muscles, tendons

Nervous system

Function: coordinates activities of other organ systems; responds to sensations

Organs: brain, spinal cord, nerves, eyes, ears

Endocrine system

Function: regulates body functions by chemicals (hormones)

Organs: pituitary gland, parathyroid gland, thyroid gland, adrenal gland, thymus, pancreas gonads

Cardiovascular system

Function: transports oxygen and nutrients to tissues; removes waste products

Organs: heart, blood, blood vessels

Lymphatic system

Function: returns tissue fluid to blood, defense against foreign organisms

Organs: spleen, lymph nodes, thymus, lymphatic vessels

Respiratory system

Function: oxygen/carbon dioxide exchange

Organs: lungs, trachea, larynx, nasal cavities, pharynx

Digestive system

Function: processes foods, absorption of nutrients into body

Organs: stomach, intestinal tract, liver, pancreas, esophagus, salivary glands

Urinary system

Function: elimination of wastes; regulates pH and volume of blood

Organs: kidneys, urinary bladder, urethra

Reproductive system

Function: produces germ cells (eggs and sperm), environment for growth of fetus

Organs: ovaries, uterus, mammary glands, Testes, prostate gland, external genitalia

Nucleus

Contains DNA, genetics

Nuclear membrane (pores)

Protects nucleus

Chromatin and chromosomes

Small genetic material

Nucleolus

rRNA produced

Cell membrane

Outer covering, protects, transports

Cytosol

Fluid where the organelles are in

Ribosomes

Protein synthesis

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Lipids, fats

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Transports, protein production

Golgi apparatus

Packaging (proteins don’t always go thru GA, only if they’ll be transferred elsewhere)

Lysosomes

Breakdown, enzymes

Peroxisomes

Breakdown of fatty acids and produce H2O2

Mitochondria

Energy, ATP, cellular respiration

Centrioles

Cell division

Microtubules

Connect chromosomes during cell division

Microfilaments

Structure for cytoskeleton

Vesicle

Secretion

Microvilli

Increases surface area

Cilia

Movement

Flagella

Movement

Mitosis or somatic cell division

Consists of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis

Before mitosis

Prior to mitosis, thin strands of DNA in the cell nucleus thicken into chromosomes, which then duplicate themselves

Early prophase

Centrioles divide and w/ asters, move apart

Nuclear membrane begins to disintegrate

Late prophase

Centrioles and asters are at opposite poles

Nucleolus and nuclear membrane have almost disappeared

Metaphase

Doubled chromosomes → their centromeres attached to the spindle fibers

Early anaphase

Centromeres split → half the chromosome move to one pole, half to the other pole

Late anaphase

The chromosomes have almost reaches their respective poles

The cell membrane begins to pinch at center

Telophase

Cell membrane completes constriction

Nuclear membranes form around the separated chromosomes

Cytokinesis

Mitosis is completes, there are two daughter cells w/ the same structures and # of chromosomes as the parent cell

Dissociation of electrolytes

Electrolytes dissociate into cations and ions

Electrolyte: calcium chloride

Cation: Ca²+

Anion: 2 Cl-

Electrolyte: Disodium phosphate →

Cation: 2 Na+

Anion: HPO4²-

Electrolyte: Magnesium chloride →

Cation: Mg²+

Anion: 2 Cl-

Electrolyte: Potassium chloride (KCl) →

Cation: K+

Anion: Cl-

Electrolyte: sodium bicarbonate →

Cation: Na+

Anion: HCO3-

Electrolyte: sodium chloride (NaCl)

Cation: Na+

Anion: Cl-

Solvency

The ability to dissolve other chemicals

Water is called the _________ ________

Universal solvent

Hydrophilic (polar)

Substances that dissolve in water

• molecules must be polarized or charged (ex: sugar)

Hydrophobic

Substances that don’t dissolve in water

• molecules are nonpolar or neutral (ex: fats)

Metabolic reaction depend on ______ of water

Solvency

Glucose (carbohydrate → monosaccharide)

Blood sugar → energy source for most cells

Galactose (carbohydrate → monosaccharide)

Converted to glucose and metabolized

Fructose (carbohydrate→ monosaccharide)

Fruit sugar → converted to glucose and metabolized

Sucrose (carbohydrate → disaccharide)

Cane sugar → digested to glucose and fructose

Lactose (carbohydrate → disaccharide)

Milk sugar → digested to glucose and galactose; important in infant nutrition

Maltose (carbohydrate→ disaccharide)

Malt sugar → product of starch digestion, further digested to glucose

Cellulose (carbohydrate → polysaccharide)

Structural polysaccharide of plants, dietary fiber

Starch (carbohydrate → polysaccharide)

Energy storage in plant cells

Glycogen (carbohydrate → polysaccharide)

Energy storage in animal cells (liver, muscle, brain, uterus, vagina)

Glycoprotein (carbohydrate → conjugated carbohydrates)

Component of the cell surface coat and mucus, among other roles

Glycolipid (carbohydrate → conjugated carbohydrate)

Component of the cell surface coat

Proteoglycan (Carbohydrate → conjugated carbohydrate)

Cell adhesions; lubrication; supportive filler of some tissues and organs

2 types of nucleic acid

DNA and RNA

How DNA differs from RNA

1. Usually double-stranded

2. Thymine as a base

3. Deoxyribose as the sugar

4. Maintains protein-encoding info

5. Cannot function as an enzyme

How RNA differs from DNA

1. Usually single-stranded

2. Uracil as a base

3. Ribose as the sugar

4. Carries protein-encoding info and controls how info is used

5. Can function as an enzyme

Protein function : structure

• keratin - tough structural protein of hair, nails, skin surface

• Collagen - contained in deeper layers of skin, bones, cartilage, and teeth

Protein function : communication

• some hormones and other cell-to-cell signals are proteins

  • Ex: ligand: a molecule that reversibly binds to a protein

• Receptors to which signal molecules bind are proteins

Protein function - membrane transport

• channel proteins in cell membranes govern what passes

• Carriers - transport solutes to other side of membrane

Protein function - catalysis

Most proteins are globular proteins

Protein function - cell adhesion

Protein adhere and help with cell adhesion

Hierarchy of complexity (largest to smallest)

Organism → organ systems → organs → tissues → cells → organelles → molecules → atoms

Part of microscope

Ocular lens

Part of microscope

Objective lens

Part of microscope

Stage

Part of microscope

Coarse focus knob

Part of microscope

Fine focus knob

Part of microscope

Iris diaphragm

Part of microscope

Mechanical stage adjustment knob

Part of microscope

Lamp

Part of microscope

Arm

Part of microscope

Base

Calculate total magnification

Objective lens magnification x ocular lens magnigucation

Lowest power lens (red) → calculate total magnification

4 (ob) × 10 (oc) = 40

Intermediate power lens (yellow) → calculate total magnification

10 (ob) x 10 (oc) = 100

Highest power lens (blue) → calculate total magnification

40 (ob) x 10 (oc) = 400

Epithelial tissue (2 types)

Simple and cuboidal

Simple epithelial tissue (4 types)

• squamous

• Cubiodal

• Columnar

• Pseudo-stratified

Stratified epithelial tissue (4 types)

• squamous

• Cuboidal

• Columnar

• Transitional

Connective tissue (4 types)

• cartilage

• Bone

• Blood

• Connective tissue tissue

Cartilage connective tissue (3 types)

• hyaline

• Elastic

• Fibrous

Connective tissue proper (6 types)

• areolar

• Adipose

• Reticular

• Elastic

• Dense regular

• Dense irregular

Muscle tissue (3 types)

• smooth

• Skeletal

• Cardiac

Nervous tissue (2 types)

Neurons and neuroglia

Simple epithelia (description)

• contain one layer of cells

• Named by shape of cells

• All cells touch basement membrane

Stratified epithelia (description)

• contain more than one layer

• Named by shape of apical cells

• Some cells rest on top of others and do not touch basement membrane