Criminal Justice Exam 2

how early 19th-century English policing influenced American law enforcement

The United States inherited its system of Anglo-Saxon common law, which included roles like sheriffs, constables, and watchmen. As both countries became more urbanized, they faced similar challenges such as crime and public disturbances.

Early American policing adopted the preventive approach to law enforcement, focusing on community policing and crime prevention

Political Era (1840-1920)

During this time, police departments were closely tied to local political leaders and political machines. Policing was heavily focused on maintaining social order and addressing community concerns. Each city or county had its own police department, leading to a lack of standardized practices and procedures across the country

What years define the Professional Model Era in policing?

1920-1970

What training advancements did police departments adopt during the Professional Model Era?

More formalized training programs and higher education requirements.

Who were two influential police chiefs advocating for a professionalized police force during the Professional Model Era?

August Vollmer and O.W. Wilson.

What technological advancements were introduced in policing during the Professional Model Era?

Motorized patrol, two-way radios, and fingerprinting systems.

What was the primary focus of police work during the Professional Model Era?

Crime control and prevention.

How did the structure of police departments change during the Professional Model Era?

Police departments became more centralized and organized.

What emphasis was placed on crime-solving during the Professional Model Era?

Rapid response and systematic crime-solving.

What is the time period for the Community Policing Era?

1970-present

What is a key focus of community policing regarding police-community relationships?

Building Relationships: Police officers work closely with community members to build trust and mutual respect.

How do officers and community members collaborate in community policing?

Problem-Solving: They work together to identify and address specific issues affecting their neighborhoods.

What is a characteristic of decision-making in community policing?

Decentralization: Decision-making is often delegated to local precincts and community policing units.

What is emphasized in community policing to prevent crime?

Prevention and Intervention: Emphasis is placed on community involvement and early intervention strategies.

Types of Law Enforcement Agencies

federal, state

Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)

Role: Responsible for investigating and enforcing federal laws. Its duties include counterterrorism, counterintelligence, cybercrime, organized crime, and public corruption.

Notable Divisions: Cyber Division, Counterterrorism Division, Criminal Investigation Division.

Headquarters: Washington, D.C.

Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA)

Role: Focuses on combating drug trafficking and distribution within the United States. It enforces controlled substances laws and regulations and aims to reduce drug-related crime.

Operations: Drug interdiction, undercover operations, and international cooperation.

Headquarters: Arlington, Virginia.

United States Secret Service (USSS)

Role: Has two primary missions: protecting national leaders (such as the President, Vice President, and foreign dignitaries) and investigating financial crimes, including counterfeiting and fraud.

Protective Services: Presidential and vice-presidential protection, security for National Special Security Events (NSSEs).

Headquarters: Washington, D.C.

law enforcement certification

Preservice training required for sworn officers in many states includes coursework on law, use of weapons, psychology, and police procedures. Police departments for state and large cities often run training programs, called police academies, for their own recruits.

Formal training

legal rules, weapons use, defensive tactics

Field training

learning from experienced officers while functioning as active officer (probationary period)

Individuals often seek police work for a variety of reasons, including:

Public Service: Many people are drawn to law enforcement because they have a strong desire to serve their communities and make a positive impact. They are motivated by the opportunity to help others and ensure public safety.

Job Security: Law enforcement positions often offer stable employment with benefits such as health insurance, retirement plans, and job stability. This security can be a significant factor for those looking for a reliable career.

Sense of Duty: A sense of duty and responsibility to uphold the law and protect citizens can be a powerful motivator. Individuals may feel a calling to enforce justice and contribute to maintaining order in society.

Variety and Excitement: Police work can be diverse and dynamic, offering a range of activities and challenges. The prospect of facing different situations and the excitement of the job can attract those who thrive in ever-changing environments.

Career Advancement: Law enforcement agencies often provide opportunities for career growth and specialization. Officers can advance to higher ranks, join specialized units, and take on leadership roles.

Skills and Training: The opportunity to develop valuable skills, such as problem-solving, communication, and critical thinking, can be appealing. Training and continuous education in law enforcement can provide a solid foundation for personal and professional growth.

Community Engagement: Building relationships with community members and working collaboratively to address local issues can be a rewarding aspect of police work. Officers often become integral parts of the communities they serve.

What are targeted recruitment campaigns in police departments?

Programs designed to attract diverse candidates through outreach to schools, community organizations, and minority groups.

What is the purpose of diversity and inclusion training in police departments?

To emphasize the importance of cultural competence and bias awareness among officers.

How do mentorship programs support women and minority officers in police departments?

They provide guidance, encouragement, and resources for retention and career advancement.

What policy changes have some police departments made to improve hiring practices?

Revising hiring and promotion practices to reduce biases, including blind application reviews and standardized testing.

Why are community partnerships important for police departments?

They help improve trust and collaboration, providing insights and support for recruitment and retention efforts.

What are representation goals in the context of police diversity efforts?

Specific diversity goals set by departments to stay accountable and focused on achieving a more representative workforce.

Overview of how recruits are prepared for the challenges of policing

Selection: Background checks, physical fitness tests, psychological evaluations.

Academy Training: Law, ethics, defensive tactics, firearms training, physical conditioning, emergency response, crisis intervention, community policing.

Field Training: On-the-job training with experienced officers.

Ongoing Development: Continuing education, specialized training, leadership development.

how police subculture shapes officers' perceptions and attitudes

Solidarity: Officers often develop a strong sense of brotherhood and loyalty towards each other, which can lead to a "us vs. them" mentality.

Cynicism: Regular exposure to crime and conflict can foster a degree of cynicism and distrust towards the public.

Authoritarianism: A hierarchical structure and emphasis on control can lead to authoritarian attitudes.

Secrecy: The notion of protecting fellow officers can result in a culture of secrecy and reluctance to report misconduct.

Isolation: The unique challenges and pressures of policing can create social isolation from the broader community.

The effects of police isolation on officer relationships and job stress

Relationships: Strained personal relationships, limited social circles, trust issues.

Job Stress: Emotional exhaustion, mental health challenges, decreased job performance.

Primary Functions of Police

Order Maintenance: Keeping peace and preventing disorder. Law Enforcement: Enforcing laws and apprehending offenders Service: Providing assistance and support to the community, often the most frequent police function

common image of police as crime fighters

heroic and justice-oriented vs. corrupt and brutal

Bureaucratic Elements

Division of labor or police bureaucracy

Divisions have a specific function that include a budget and training specifically for the mission.

Patrol units: uniformed police officers

Special units: officers/detectives that focus on a specific crime

describe military-style organizational elements in police departments

Hierarchy: A clear chain of command, with ranks such as officer, sergeant, lieutenant, captain, and chief.

Discipline: Strict adherence to rules, regulations, and codes of conduct.

Uniforms and Insignia: Standardized uniforms and rank insignia that denote authority and position within the organization.

Training: Rigorous, structured training programs focusing on

physical fitness, tactical skills, and disciplined behavior.

Command Structure: Centralized decision-making processes with a focus on operational efficiency and accountability.

Protocols and Procedures: Standard operating procedures (SOPs) for handling various situations, ensuring consistency and control.

patrol units

the core operational units of local police departments that deploy uniformed officers to handle the full array of police functions for service, order maintenance, and law enforcement

operational units

patrol, investigation, traffic, vice, juvenile

special units

units within local police departments that deploy officers, often in plain clothes if not assigned to the traffic unit, who are dedicated to a specific task, such as investigation, or type of crime, such as narcotics enforcement

police bureaucracy

the organizational description of police departments' design and operations that seek to achieve efficiency through division of labor, chain of command, and rules to guide staff

Policy Development

How police executives allocate resources based on community needs

Watchman Style

Focuses on order maintenance, often in lower-crime areas

Legalistic Style

Emphasizes strict law enforcement and formal procedures

Service Style

Aims for community engagement and discreet order maintenance, prevalent in suburban areas

Subculture

the symbols, beliefs, values, and attitudes shared by members of a subgroup of the larger society

Order maintenance

noise disturbances, panhandlers, disorderly conduct calls, handle a situation that the public cannot control

Law enforcement

law has clearly been broken, suspect is identified and arrested

service function

supplying goods and services not sufficiently supplied by private entities; a purpose of local governments

Bureaucracy

A large, complex organization composed of appointed officials

Recruitment and training

______involves the process of attracting and selecting candidates for police work, ensuring they meet the necessary qualifications and standards. ________ prepares these recruits through comprehensive education and practical exercises to equip them with the skills and knowledge required for effective law enforcement.

Public Cooperation

Recognize the importance of community assistance in identifying crime and aiding investigations

Discretion in Policing

Understand the factors influencing police discretion, especially inambiguous situations where the law's application may not be clear

Corruption

Active seeking of personal gain by officers and acceptance of gifts or payoffs.

Community Impact

Understand how corruption and excessive force erode public trust and support for police

Accountability Mechanisms

Systems ensuring responsible governance and transparency.

Internal Affairs Units

Investigate misconduct within the department.

Civilian Review Boards

Allow community members to review police conduct.

Standards and Accreditation

Establish benchmarks for police conduct andoperations

Civil Liability Lawsuits

Legal action against police for misconduct enhances accountability

Reactive vs. Proactive Policing

Recognize that police often respond to incidents rather than preventing them

Measuring Productivity

Understand metrics like clearance rates and the challenges in measuring proactive policing

Patrol

Involves responding to calls, maintaining visibility, and investigating suspicious circumstances.

Investigations

Conducted by detectives in collaboration with patrol officers, involving crime detection and follow-up

Specialized Units

Large departments often have specialized teams for traffic, drugs, and vice crimes.

Preventive Patrol

Deterrent presence in the community

Hot Spots

Targeting areas with high crime rates

Foot vs. Motorized Patrol

Most patrolling is conducted in cars; motorized more remote from community needs; past two decades have revived interest in foot patrol;

Aggressive Patrol

Increased enforcement tactics

Community Policing

Engaging citizens in crime prevention and community problem-solving

Challenges with Special Populations

Understand the needs of groups such as thementally ill and homeless who require social services

Cultural Sensitivity

Importance of recognizing diverse attitudes, customs, and languages within the community

Effective Policing

Maintaining strong connections with the community is crucial for successful law enforcement

Discretion

ability to make responsible decisions

Police Corruption

The abuse of police authority for personal or organizational gain

Excessive Use of Force

applications of force against individuals by police officers that violate either departmental policies or constitutional rights by exceeding the level of force permissible and necessary in a given situation

Internal Affairs

The branch of a police organization tasked with investigating charges of wrongdoing involving members of the department.

Fourth Amendment

Protects against unreasonable search and seizure

Reasonable Suspicion

any information that points to illegal activity and may include rumor, tips, and anonymous telephone calls.

Probable Cause

reasonable cause for issuing a search warrant or making an arrest; more than mere suspicion

Plain View Doctrine:

officers may examine and use as evidence, without a warrant, contraband or evidence that is in open view at a location where they are legally permitted to be

Deadly Force

force applied by a police officer that is likely or intended to cause death

Warrant Process

Officers submit an affidavit to a judge.

Affidavit must establish probable cause for search or arrest

Circumstances for Warrantless Searches

o Special Needs: Such as at border crossings and airports.

o Stop and Frisk: Limited searches for weapons based on reasonable suspicion.

o Lawful Arrests: Searches incident to arrest.

o Exigent Circumstances: Emergencies where obtaining a warrant is impractical.

o Voluntary Consent: When individuals allow searches.

o Automobile Exceptions: Special rules apply due to mobility

Privilege Against Self-Incrimination

• Fifth Amendment: Protects against coercion and violence by police.

• Miranda v. Arizona: Officers must inform suspects of their rights before custodial questioning.

• Exceptions: Several exceptions to the Miranda warning have been established by the Supreme Court.

Exclusionary Rule

• Definition: Prohibits the use of illegally obtained evidence in court.

• Purpose: Deters police misconduct during investigations.

• Exceptions: Includes the "inevitable discovery" and "good faith" exceptions for defective warrants

Plain View Doctrine

officers may examine and use as evidence, without a warrant, contraband or evidence that is in open view at a location where they are legally permitted to be

Affidavit

sworn written statement made before an authorized official

Exigent Circumstances

when there is an immediate threat to public safety or the risk that evidence will be destroyed, officers may search, arrest, or question suspects without obtaining a warrant or following other usual rules of criminal procedure

Miranda Rights

Rights possessed by persons who are arrested by the police. (Remain silent, Attorney, etc.)

Good Faith Exception

Admission of illegally obtained evidence if illegality results from a technical or minor error