AP Lang Rhetorics 2

Connotation

The emotional or cultural associations tied to a word beyond its literal meaning (e.g., 'home' connotes warmth and safety).

Denotation

The dictionary or literal definition of a word, free from emotional associations (e.g., 'home' denotes a place where someone lives).

Adverbs

Words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, often ending in -ly (e.g., 'quickly ran,' 'very tall').

Qualify

To limit or refine a statement, often to make it more precise or accurate (e.g., 'Most students enjoy reading, but not all types of books.').

Modify

To describe, limit, or alter the meaning of another word (e.g., In 'a red apple,' 'red' modifies 'apple').

Modifiers

Words, phrases, or clauses that provide description in a sentence (e.g., 'Running down the street, she saw a friend.').

Tone

The author’s attitude toward the subject or audience, conveyed through word choice (e.g., sarcastic, hopeful, critical, reverent).

Shifts in tone

Changes in the speaker’s attitude that often signal a change in argument or emotion (e.g., from frustrated to hopeful).

Style

The author’s unique use of language including diction, sentence structure, and grammatical norms (e.g., Hemingway’s style is concise and direct).

Satire

The use of humor, irony, or exaggeration to criticize or expose flaws in society or individuals (e.g., The Onion or Jonathan Swift's 'A Modest Proposal').

Hyperbole

Exaggerated statements not meant to be taken literally (e.g., 'I’ve told you a million times!').

Incongruity

Presenting things that are out of place or absurd in context (e.g., a cat giving a business presentation).

Parody

Imitating a style or work for comic effect or critique (e.g., Weird Al Yankovic's songs).

Irony

A contrast between expectation and reality that can be humorous or poignant.

Situational irony

When what happens is the opposite of what was expected (e.g., a fire station burns down).

Verbal irony

Saying the opposite of what you mean (e.g., 'Great job,' said about a failed test).

Appositive phrase

A noun or noun phrase that renames or explains another noun (e.g., 'My friend Sarah, a talented painter, lives next door.').

Prepositional phrase

A group of words beginning with a preposition and ending with a noun or pronoun (e.g., 'Under the bridge,' 'In the morning').

Participial phrase

A phrase that begins with a participle and functions as an adjective (e.g., 'Running through the park, he smiled.').

Simple sentence

A sentence with one independent clause (e.g., 'She sings beautifully.').

Fragment

An incomplete sentence missing a subject or verb (e.g., 'When we arrived.').

Compound sentence

A sentence with two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (e.g., 'She played the piano, and he sang.').

Complex sentence

A sentence with one independent clause and at least one dependent clause (e.g., 'Because it rained, the game was canceled.').

Dependent clause

A clause that cannot stand alone as a sentence (e.g., 'Although he was tired…').

Independent clause

A complete thought that can stand alone (e.g., 'She finished her homework.').

Adverbial clause

A dependent clause that functions as an adverb (e.g., 'Because he studied, he passed.').

Adjective clause

A dependent clause that modifies a noun (e.g., 'The book that you gave me is excellent.').

Arrangement

The organization and structure of ideas in a text or argument.

Subordination

Using dependent clauses to show relationships and emphasize certain ideas over others (e.g., 'Although it was raining, we went outside.').

Subordinating conjunctions

Words that introduce dependent clauses (e.g., because, although, since, while).

Adverbial conjunctions

Conjunctive adverbs that connect independent clauses (e.g., however, therefore, consequently, moreover).

Relative pronouns

Words that introduce adjective clauses (e.g., who, whom, which, that).

Coordination

Linking two or more equal elements with coordinating conjunctions.

Coordinating conjunctions

The seven conjunctions that join equal parts: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so (FANBOYS).

Parenthetical elements

Extra information inserted into a sentence, often set off by commas, dashes, or parentheses (e.g., 'My sister, who lives in Denver, is visiting.').

Commas

Punctuation marks used to separate items, clauses, or elements for clarity (e.g., 'I bought apples, oranges, and grapes.').

Semicolons

Used to connect closely related independent clauses or separate complex list items (e.g., 'She’s coming; she’ll be late.').

Dashes

Emphasize or set off information in a dramatic or informal way (e.g., 'He was hungry—starving, actually.').

Hyphens

Join words in compound modifiers (e.g., 'well-known author') or split words at the end of lines.