(Topic 1) Foreign Policy 1911-1918

Italian invasion of Libya:

September 1911: Italy invaded Libya…

• Gain colonies in North Africa, in response to France’s efforts to expand regions

• Hoped for the invasion to weaken Nationalist support

• Powerful business interests pushed after establishing investments in Libya

(Following invasion) The Libyan War:

29th September 1911, Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire (Turks)

• Seized ports & coastal towns → locals saw them as invaded so Italy then had to fight Turks & Arabs

• They gained Libyan territory (through diplomatic pressure)

• Turks eventually surrendered in the Treaty of Lausanne (October 1912)

Impacts of the Libyan War:

• War was extremely costly, Italy had to keep large numbers of troops even after the war ended (3500 died)

• Nationalists claimed responsibility for pushing Giolitti into taking action: they gained popularity and blamed him for the losses/cost.

• Led to a temporary coalition with the Nationalists & Catholics → weakened the Socialists until The ‘Revolutionary’ Socialists took over movement.

• Libya produced same levels of crops leading to a fall in prices but also a loss of trade

• Emigrants refused to move to Libya

Growth of Nationalism & Socialism:

Became more critical of the Liberal led government…

• Socialists: felt the system was used to protect the elites & intimidate workers

• Wealth was being ‘wasted’ on foreign campaigns

• Nationalists: growing more powerful (support from businesses, journalists etc)

• Felt Liberals were failing to deal with socialist threat

Impact of territory gain in 1912:

Results did not come as expected

• 1913 election: Giolitti lost seats but remained a majority→formed a coalition with Catholic Union

• Gentiloni Pact: secret deal on the run up elections, Liberals promising to support Catholic school funding etc. Concessions made to gain favour (eg formalising civil marriage by a religious service)

• Conservative peasants gave votes to Catholics over Liberals, and so Giolitti relied on their support.

• = meant that Socialists & Radicals wouldn’t collaborate with either party

Resignation of Giolitti & Declaration of Neutrality (1914):

• Giolitti was facing much opposition/criticism after the collapse of the coalition. End of Trasformisio

• Replaced by Antonio Salandra, Giolitti remaining a Deputy

• The heir to the Austrian throne was murdered- being a trigger for war. Italy declared herself as neutral- Giolitti opposed involvement in war, believing they weren’t ready

(The Intervention Crisis 1914-15) Reasons for supporting neutrality:

Most Italians against the military Intervening; wanted to stay neutral…

1) An alliance with Germany & Austria-Hungary was not appeasing (Italy wanted to gain land from Austria-Hungary)

2) Neutrality seemed like a better choice- both economically & militarily

3) Catholics (&other left parties) opposed opposition- they had much influence within Italy

(The Intervention Crisis 1914-15) The shift to intervention:

• Nationalists began campaigning for the intervention in favour of Entente Powers, rather than Central Powers

• Nationalists used press to popularise views (Mussolini & D’Annunzio particularly vocal in their support)

• Police & Military supported intervention→broke up protests that were against

The Treaty of London 1915 & entering the war:

• PM Salandra in favour of a treaty either the Entente Powers (with a potential to make territorial gains)

• Began negotiations with both sides→TofL signed April 1915

• Agreements of territorial gains, share in any future war reparations etc

• Italy entered war on the side of Entente Powers in May 1915

(Entering the war) Military Stalement:

Italy was unprepared for war…

• Many of their best soldiers were in Libya, maintaining their territory expansion

• Mobilisation of troop=unorganised & shortage of weaponry/munition

• 1916: Austria-Hungary’s first major offence in Italy→caused the collapse of Salandra’s government

• By 1917: fatigue had set in amongst war supporters, little progress had been made on any front, high casualties, suffering economy

Defeat at Caporetto (October 1917) & the impacts:

Italian army hoped that the winter of 1917 would offer some respite, however rumours of an imminent A-H attack circulated…

• Austro-Hungarian forces attacked Caporetto. Caporetto had been selected by Central Powers as the target for a major offensive as there was a great weakness from Italian Defence

• Italian army (of many poorly trained soldiers) sought to reinforce the mountainous battle lines around the town - essentially their response was chaotic.

• Now a new front as German/Austro-Hungarian forces pushed into Italy’s land→ 40,000 Italians killed/injured & 50,000 German/Austro-Hungarians killed/injured. Italians lost significant amounts of artillery, coal etc meaning they were dependent on allied imports

• Luigi Cadorna (Italian General) blamed defeat on cowardice & acted cruelly towards soldiers. Orlando (new PM) didn’t want to work with Cadorna (nor allies) so forced him out. Replaced by Armando Diaz

• Allies met In November (during battle) and agreed to support Italy, creating the Supreme War Council (SWC).

Socialist response to war:

PSI (socialist party) was committed to peace, yet became more involved…

• Established Local Councils to organise rations & welfare

• Trade Unions helped safeguard jobs, wage rises, tax limitations etc

• Their opponents (Nationalists etc) blamed them for sabotaging war effort and they ignored that industrialists were making profit out of war

The Russian Revolution (1917):

• Communist takeover in Russia sparked new wave of unrest→Socialist party tried to model it for a change in Italy

• They spread messages, appealing to workers but NOT the army. The army remained unsympathetic to the workers)

(Impact of war) the war econonomy:

Start of war…

• Limited resources & an unprepared economy

By 1918, this deficit had been made up…

• Aircraft industry in Britain: More weaponry (eg canons) & Fiat became a leading manufacturer of trucks in Europe

Achieved by a strategy of ‘Production At All Costs:’

• Workers placed under Military Discipline- they weren’t allowed to change jobs or strike.

• The working week increased (increased Socialist support)

• Peasant soldiers promised land at the end of war (promise not followed through)

(Impact of War) Summary of consequences:

• Enormous Gov budget deficit

• Rise in national debt

• Debts of 15billion Lire to Britain (due to reliance of allied imports post war)

• Inflation, large price increases (Gov printed more money as they could no longer borrow) BUT a stabilised (ish) economy

• Exports were low, consumer market was weak

Significance of war victory:

• Diaz introduced policies to improve morales & military situations

• Rations = improved (Troops given more days leave & A ‘Serviceman’s Association’ was established to improve welfare of troops & families

• Military situation stabilised in 1918: Germany began struggling at end of war, were in retreat after an attack by Entente forces. Italian army attacked Austro-Hungarian force at Battle of Vittorio Veneto (November) which collapsed the A-H army on the Italian Front

• Italy took 500,000 prisoners of war, gained territory & pride BUT had lost around 700,000 men

Peace Settlement

• Armistice Signed 11th November 1918

• Treaty of London (1915) had promised territorial gains. At the Peace Settlement (Versailles), Italy had gained this & more (several territories & a permanent seat in the League of Nations)

• Orlando expected Fiume (as promised in 1915) but was not given it, alongside other surrounding territories- left conference unhappy

• Nationalists saw peace as betrayal of their efforts and regarded it as a ‘mutilated victory’ → causing instability