AP Psych Vocab Unit 2.1-2.2

Perception

the process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information, enabling us to recognize objects and events as meaningful

Top-Down Processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

Bottom-Up Processing

information processing that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Perceptual Set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

Gestalt Psychology

field of psychology that emphasizes our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

Closure

to perceive incomplete or ambiguous stimuli as whole and complete

Figure-Ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)

Proximity

objects that are close to each other are perceived as being related or belonging to a single group

Similarity

the mind groups together objects with shared characteristics, such as color, shape, size, or proximity

Selective Attention

focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

Cocktail Party Effect

the ability to focus on one conversation in a noisy room

Change Blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness

Inattentional Blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

Binocular Depth Cue

a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes

Retinal Disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth. By comparing retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance — the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object

Convergence

a cue to nearby objects' distance, enabled by the brain combining retinal images

Monocular Depth Cue

a depth cue, such as interpositon or linear perspective, available to either eye alone

Relative Clarity

a monocular cue for depth perception where hazy or blurry objects are perceived as being farther away than sharp, clear objects

Relative Size

a depth cue where the brain infers distance by comparing the size of similar objects

Texture Gradient

a monocular depth cue where the brain perceives distance based on the gradual change in texture from coarse to fine as an object moves away from the observer

Linear Perspective

Parallel lines appear to meet as they travel into the distance

Interposition

one object overlapping another is perceived as being closer, while the object that is partially obscured is perceived as being farther away

Perceptual Constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change

Apparent Motion/Movement

perception of movement where two or more static images are presented in rapid succession, creating the illusion of a single, moving stimulus

Concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Prototype

a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a crow)

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

Accommodation

(1) in sensation and perception, the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus images of near or far objects on the retina. (2) in developmental psychology, adapting our current schemas (understandings) to incorporate new information

Algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem; contrasts with the usually speedier — but also more error-prone — use of heuristics

Heuristics

a simple thinking strategy — a mental shortcut — that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than an algorithm

Representativeness Heuristic

judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

Availability Heuristic

judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

Mental Set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

Framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements

Gambler's Fallacy

the mistaken belief that past independent events influence future outcomes, leading people to think a certain result is "due" to happen after a string of its opposite

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

a psychological bias where individuals continue a behavior or endeavor as a result of previously invested resources, such as money, time, or effort

Executive Functions

cognitive skills that work together, enabling us to generate, organize, plan, and implement goal-directed behavior

Creativity

the ability to produce new and valuable ideas

Divergent Thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions

Convergent Thinking

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

Functional Fixedness

a cognitive bias where people perceive an object only in terms of its most common use, hindering their ability to use it for alternative purposes