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Covers: Animal Form and Function; Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans; Animal Nutrition; Phases of Food Processing; Feeding Mechanisms; The Nervous System; Sensory Systems; Endocrine System
Anatomy
The study of the biological form of an organism.
Physiology
The study of the biological functions an organism performs.
Adaptation
An environmentally advantageous trait.
Homeostasis
Regulation of the internal environment.
Epithelial Tissue
Tissue that covers the outside of the body and lines organs and cavities.
Connective Tissue
Tissue that supports and binds other tissues together.
Muscle Tissue
Tissue composed of thin cells capable of contraction.
Nervous Tissue
Tissue that senses stimuli and transmits signals throughout the body.
Endothermic
Animals that generate heat by metabolism, maintaining a constant internal temperature (eg. birds and mammals)
Ectothermic
Animals that gain heat from external sources, with varying internal temperatures (eg. most invertebrates, fish, amphibians)
Calorie
The energy produced by the oxidation of 1g of material.
Essential Nutrients
Nutrients that must be obtained from the diet because they cannot be synthesized by the body.
Intracellular Digestion
Digestion that occurs inside the cells.
Extracellular Digestion
Digestion that occurs outside of cells, through a digestive system.
Neurotransmitter
Chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses.
Sensory Receptors
Cells that transduce stimulus energy and transmit signals to the central nervous system.
Hormones
Chemical signals secreted into the circulatory system that communicate with various body systems.
Feedback Loop
A system that uses information from the output of a process to regulate that same process.
Vasodilation
The increase in blood flow to the skin to facilitate heat loss.
Vasoconstriction
The decrease in blood flow to the skin to lower heat loss.
Photoreceptors
Cells that contain light-absorbing pigments to detect light.
Mechanoreceptors
Receptors that sense physical deformation caused by mechanical energy.
Thyroid Hormones
Hormones that regulate metabolism and other functions in the body.
Sodium-Potassium Pump
A transport protein that moves sodium out of cells and potassium into cells.
Gastrointestinal Tract
The digestive system that includes various organs where digestion takes place.
Set Point
The desired value of a physiological parameter that the body tries to maintain.
Action Potential
A rapid change in membrane potential that travels along the axon of a neuron.
Integumentary System
The organ system that includes skin, hair, nails, and glands, providing protection and regulation.
Keratin
A protein that is a key structural material making up the outer layer of human skin, hair, and nails.
Adipose Tissue
A type of connective tissue that stores fat and provides insulation and cushioning.
Digestive Enzymes
Biological molecules that facilitate the breakdown of food into absorbable units.
Synapse
The junction between two neurons where neurotransmitters are released to transmit signals.
Neuroglia
Supporting cells in the nervous system that provide structural and functional support to neurons.
Skin Homeostasis
The skin's role in maintaining the body's temperature and fluid balance.
Depolarization
Small rise in resting potential; sodium enters the cell, causing the cell to become more positive
Hyperpolarization
Small increase in resting potential; sodium enters the cell, causing the cell to become more negative
Genome
Determines animal body plans
Law of Diffusion
Dictates the rate at which materials diffuse into and out of tissue
Apical surface of epithelium
Faces internal or external environment; carries out functions like absorption, secretion, and sensory transduction
Basolateral surface of epithelium
Connects epithelial cells with other epithelial cells
Cuboidal Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissue shaped like dice; Secretion and absorption
Columnar Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissue shaped like bricks; Secretion, absorption, and movement of substances with cilia
Squamos Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissue shaped like floor tiles; primarily for protection
Function of Epithelium
Protection and regulation of materials in and out of the body
Simple (Epithelial Cells)
Single cell layer of epithelial cells
Stratified (Epithelial Cells)
Multiple tiers of epithelial cells
Pseudostratified (Epithelial Cells)
A single layer of epithelial cells of varying lengths
Skeletal Muscle Tissue
Attached to bones, responsible for voluntary movement, and appears striated; made of long, multinucleated cells
Smooth Muscle Tissue
Found in the walls of internal organs like the stomach and bladder, functions involuntarily, and lacks striations; made of small, single nucleated cells
Cardiac Muscle Tissue
Exclusive to the heart, contracts involuntarily to pump blood, and exhibits striations similar to skeletal muscle, but with unique junctions called intercalated discs that allow for coordinated contractions; made of small, multiple nucleated cells
Glial Cells
Help nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons
Regulator
An animal that uses internal mechanisms to control internal change despite external fluctuation
Conformer
An animal that allows its internal condition to change in accordance with external changes
Function of Homeostasis
For a given variable, fluctuations above or below a set point serve as a sensor and trigger a stimulus, which is detected by a motor output (response)
Negative Feedback Loop
Helps to return a variable to a normal range (eg. glucose regulation)
Positive Feedback Loop
Amplifies a stimulus; not usually contribute to homeostasis in animals
Thermoregulation
The process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within a tolerable range
Poikilotherm
Body temperature varies with its environment
Homeotherm
Has a relatively constant body temperature
Insulation
Skin, feathers, fur, or blubber that functions to reduce heat flow between an animal and its environment
Countercurrent Exchange
When organisms transfer heat between fluids flowing in opposite directions to reduce heat loss (eg. dolphins or ducks)
Evaporative Heat Loss
Allows organisms to lose heat through the evaporation of water from their skin; can be done through panting, sweating, or bathing
Thermogenesis
The adjustment of metabolic heat production to maintain body temperature; can be increased by muscle activity such as moving or shivering, or when hormones cause mitochondria to increase their metabolic acitivity
Endocrine System
Secretes hormones that coordinate slower but longer-acting responses (eg. reproduction, development, energy metabolism, growth)
Nervous System
Conveys high-speed electrical signals along neurons; facilitate the regulation of other cells
Local Regulators
Molecules that act over short distances, reaching target cells solely by diffusion
Paracrine Signaling
A type of cell-cell communication in which the target cells lie near the secreting cells
Autocrine Signaling
A type of cell-cell communication where the target cell is also the secreting cell
Pheromones
Chemicals that are released into the environment to allow for interspeciary communication
Endocrine Glands
Ductless organs that contain groups of endocrine cells; secrete hormones directly into surrounding fluid
Lipid-soluble Hormones (Steroid Hormones)
Pass easily through cell membranes; diffuse across cell membranes
Water-soluble Hormones (Polypeptides and Amines)
Do not pass easily through cell membranes; secreted by exocytosis
Prostaglandins
Help regulate aggregation of platelets; promote fever and inflammation and intensify the sensation of pain
Insulin
Antagonistic hormones that decrease blood glucose; promotes fat storage and uptake of glucose
Glucagon
Antagonistic hormones that increase blood glucose; stimulates breakdown of fat and protein into glucose
Hypothalamus
Receives information from the nervous system and initiates responses through the endocrine system
Posterior Pituitary
Stores and secretes hormones that are made in the hypothalamus
Anterior pituitary
Makes and releases hormones under regulation of the hypothalamus
Oxytocin
Released from the posterior pituitary’ regulates milk secretion by the mammary glands
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
Regulates physiology and behavior
Hormone Cascade Pathway
When a hormone stimulates the release of a series of other hormones, the last of which activates a non-endocrine target cell
Growth Hormone (GH)
Secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and has tropic and nontropic actions; promotes growth directly and stimulates production of growth factors
Tropic Hormone
Regulates the function of endocrine cells or glands
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
Antagonistic hormone that is released by the parathyroid glands; increases the level of blood calcium
Calcitonin
Antagonistic hormone that is released by the thyroid gland; decreases the level of blood calcium
Adrenal Gland
Consists of two glands, the adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex; facilitates physiological response to stress
Adrenal Medulla
Secretes epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) in response to stress-activated impulses
Glucocorticoids
A type of corticosteroid that influences glucose metabolism and the immune system
Mineralocorticoids
A type of corticosteroid that affects salt and water balance
Testes
Synthesize androgens, mainly testosterone, which stimulate development and maintenance of the male reproductive system
Estrogens
Responsible for maintenance of the female reproductive system and the development of female secondary sex characteristics
Progesterone
Involved in preparing and maintaining the uterus in mammals
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