Biology of the Mind and Brain Structures Exam Review

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering neuroanatomy, biological psychology, neurotransmitters, nervous system divisions, endocrine system, and research methods based on the lecture study guide.

Standard deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Normal curve (normal distribution)

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

Plasticity

The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.

Dendrites

Branching fibers of a neuron that receive and conduct information toward the cell body.

Axon

A long neuron fiber through which information is passed to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

Myelin sheath

A layer of fatty tissue encasing some axons that insulates them and speeds their impulses; laid down up to age 25, its degeneration causes multiple sclerosis.

Glial cells

Cells that support nerve cells by providing nutrients, insulating myelin, guiding neural connections, and mopping up ions and neurotransmitters.

Action potential

A brief electrical charge that travels down an axon as a neural impulse when stimulated.

Resting potential

The positive-outside (sodium ions) and negative-inside (potassium ions) state of an axon's selectively permeable membrane.

Depolarization

The loss of the inside/outside charge difference when positively charged sodium ions flood through the axon gates, triggering subsequent channels to open.

Threshold

The minimum intensity reached when excitatory signals exceed inhibitory signals to trigger an action potential.

Refractory period

A resting pause during which subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon rests.

Synapse

The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron, separated by the synaptic gap or cleft.

Reuptake

The process where excess neurotransmitters in the synaptic gap are reabsorbed by the sending neuron.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning, and memory; associated with Alzheimer's disease.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter that influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion; linked to schizophrenia and Parkinson's disease.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter affecting mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal; linked to depression.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter that helps control alertness and arousal; linked to depression.

GABA

A major inhibitory neurotransmitter; linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia.

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; linked to migraines or seizures when in excess.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that influence the perception of pain or pleasure.

Agonist

A molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action by mimicking its excitatory or inhibitory effects.

Antagonist

A molecule that decreases a neurotransmitter's action by blocking production or release.

Central nervous system (CNS)

The body's decision maker, containing the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

The section of the nervous system responsible for gathering information and transmitting CNS decisions to other body parts.

Sensory neurons

Neurons that carry messages from the body's tissues and sensory receptors inward to the brain and spinal cord for processing.

Motor neurons

Neurons that carry instructions from the central nervous system outward to the body's muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and process information between sensory inputs and motor outputs.

Somatic nervous system

Component of the peripheral nervous system that enables voluntary control of skeletal muscles.

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

Self-regulating component of the peripheral nervous system that controls glands, internal organs, and muscles.

Sympathetic nervous system

Division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body and expends energy, accelerating heartbeat and raising blood pressure.

Parasympathetic nervous system

Division of the autonomic nervous system that conserves energy as it calms the body.

Endocrine system

The body's slow chemical communication system, consisting of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

Hormones

Chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream and influence interest in sex, food, and aggression.

Pituitary gland

The pea-sized master gland located in the brain's core; regulated by the hypothalamus, it releases growth hormone and oxytocin, and controls other endocrine glands.

Adrenal glands

Glands ordered by the ANS in danger to release epinephrine and norepinephrine to increase heart rate and blood pressure.

Brainstem

The brain's oldest and innermost region, beginning where the spinal cord enters the skull and swells into the medulla.

Medulla

The base of the brainstem that controls heartbeat and breathing.

Pons

Brainstem structure located above the medulla that coordinates movements and controls sleep.

Thalamus

Pair of egg-shaped structures atop the brainstem acting as the sensory control center for all senses except smell.

Reticular formation

Neural network inside the brainstem that filters incoming stimuli and relays important information to other brain areas.

Cerebellum

Structure that enables nonverbal learning and skill memory, judges time, modulates emotions, discriminates sounds and textures, and coordinates voluntary movements.

Limbic system

Neural system located between the oldest and newest brain areas; includes the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus.

Amygdala

Two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system associated with aggression and fear.

Hypothalamus

Limbic system structure lying below the thalamus that directs maintenance activities, governs the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and links to emotion and reward.

Hippocampus

Sea-horse shaped limbic structure that processes conscious explicit memories and decreases in size and function with age.

Cerebrum

The new brain comprising two cerebral hemispheres contributing 85 percent of the brain's weight.

Cerebral cortex

Thin layer of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebrum.

Frontal lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex behind the forehead involved in speaking, muscle movements, making plans and judgments, emotions, and personality.

Parietal lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex at the top and rear that receives sensory input for touch and body position.

Occipital lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex at the back of the head that receives information from visual fields.

Temporal lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex above the ears containing auditory areas that receive information primarily from the opposite ear.

Motor cortex

An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

Somatosensory cortex

An area at the front of the parietal lobes that receives information from skin senses and body part movement.

Phineas Gage

Railroad worker who survived an 1848 accident where a metal rod damaged his frontal lobes, changing his personality from calm and friendly to irritable, rude, and dishonest.

Neurogenesis

The process by which the brain attempts to mend itself by producing new neurons.

Right hemisphere

Brain hemisphere specializing in perceptual tasks, making inferences, modulating speech clarity, orchestrating self-awareness, recognizing faces, noticing differences, and perceiving emotions.

Left hemisphere

Brain hemisphere primarily controlling language center functions and math.