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Money
any asset that can be used in making purchases
Ex. currency, coin, checking account balance
Shares of stock is not, for example, money
anything that is generally accepted in payment for goods or services or in the repayment of debts
Any asset that can be used in making purchases
Economists often distinguish money from:
Wealth- total property that stores values; includes not only money but aslo other assets like bonds, stocks, land, and houses
Shares of stock is part of wealth, but not money
Income- flow of earnings per unit of time denominated in dollars
Three principal uses of money
Medium of exchange- money is used to purchase goods and services
Without money, all economic transactions would have to be in the form of barter (the direct trade of goods or services for other goods or services)
Barter is inefficient because it requires that each party to a trade has something the other part wants
Unit of account- money is the basic yardstick for measuring economic value
Expressing economic values in a common unit of account allows for easy comparisons
M1
money is the sum of currency outstanding and balances held in checking accounts
M2
money is the sum of currency outstanding and balances held in checking accounts plus some additional assets that are usable in making payments but at greeted cost or inconvenience than currency or checks
Bank reserves
cash or similar assets held by commercial banks for the purpose of meeting depositor withdrawals and payments
Are held by banks in their vaults, rather than circulated among the public, and thus are not counted as part of the money supply
100% Reserve Banking
a situation in which banks’ reserves equal 100% of their deposits
Reserve-deposit ratio
bank reserves/deposits
Fractional-reserve banking
a banking system in which bank reserves are less than deposits so that the reserve-deposit ratio is less than 100%
Desired reserve-deposit ratio
bank reserves / bank deposits
Depositors will expand through additional rounds of lending as long as the ratio of bank reserves to bank deposits exceeds the reserve-deposit ratio desired by banks
When the actual ratio of bank reserves to deposits equals the desired reserve-deposit ration, the expansion stops
Bank deposits
bank reserves / desired reserve-deposit ratio
Money supply
currency in the hands of the public + bank deposits
Also equals currency held by public + (bank reserves) / (desired reserve-deposit ratio)
Federal Reserve System
the central bank of the US
Two main responsibilities:
Monetary policy- determines how much money circulates in the economy
Changes in the money supply can affect interest rates, inflation, unemployment, and exchange rates
The Fed in particular, does not control the money supply directly
However, they can control the money supply indirectly by changing the supply of reserves held by commercial banks
Oversight and regulation of financial markets
The Federal Reserve Act established a system of 12 regional Federal Reserve banks, each associated with a geographical area called a Federal Reserve district
Ensures that different regions were represented in the national policymaking process
Regional Feds regularly assess economic conditions in their districts
Board of governors
the leadership of the Fed, consist of seven governors appointed by the president to staggered 14-year terms
Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC)
the committee that makes decisions concerning monetary policy
Meets eight times a year to review the state of the economy and to determine monetary policy
Open-market purchase
the purchase of government bonds from the public by the Fed for the purpose of increasing the supply of bank reserves and the money supply
Open-market sale
the sale by the Fed of government bonds to the public for the purpose of reducing bank reserves and the money supply
Open-market operations
open-market purchases and open-market sales
Banking Panic
a situation in which news or rumors of the imminent bankruptcy of one or more banks leads bank depositors to rush to withdraw their funds
The existence of fractional-reserve banking makes banking panics possible
Bank reserves are less than deposits, which means that banks do not keep enough cash on hand to pay off their depositors if they were all the decide to withdraw their deposits
Since bank reserves are less than deposits, a sufficiently severe panic could lead even financially healthy banks to run out of cash, forcing them into bankruptcy and closure
Deposit Insurance
a system under which the government guarantees that depositors will not lose any money even if their bank goes bankrupt
Eliminates the incentive for people to withdraw their deposits when rumors circulate that the bank is in financial trouble
Velocity
a measure of the speed at which money circulates; the speed at which money changes hands in transactions involving final goods and services
= (value of transactions) / (money stock)
= (nominal GDP) / (money stock)
= (price level x real GDP) / (particular money stock being considered-ex. M1 or M2)
Quantity equation
M x V = P x V
Monetary aggregates
measures of money supply defined by the Fed
Money supply process
the mechanism that determines the level of money supply
Three main players in the money supply process
The central bank- the government agency that oversees the banking system and is responsible for the conduct of monetary policy
Banks (depository institutions)- the financial intermediaries that accep deposits from individuals and institutions and make loans
Depositors- individuals and institutions that hold deposits in banks
Money supply
currency + demand (checking account) deposits
Reserves
the portion of deposits that banks have not lent
Bank deposit
bank reserves / desired reserve-deposit ratio
The Fed
has responsibility of conducting monetary policy and oversee and regulate financial markets
Monetary policy
deciding and managing the size of the nation’s money supply
Monetary base- the sum of reserves and currency in circulation
Federal Funds Rate- the primary indicator of the stance of monetary policy in the US; the interest rate on overnight loans of reserves (known as federal funds)
Open market operations
the Fed’s preferred method of monetary control
To increase the monetary base, the Fed could buy government bonds, paying with new dollars
Discount rate
the interest rate the Fed charges on loans to banks
To increase the monetary base, the Fed could lower the discount rate, encouraging banks to borrow more reserves
Reserve requirements
Fed regulations impose a minimum reserve-deposit ratio
To reduce the reserve-deposit ratio, the Fed could reduce reserve requirements
Reserve requirements are not usually used as a monetary policy tool
Interest on reserves
the Fed pays interest on banks reserves deposited with the Fed
To reduce the reserve-deposit ration, the Fed could pay a lower interest rate on reserves
Quantitative easing
outright purchases of financial assets (federal government bonds) through the creation of excess settlement balances (reserves)
Works by bidding up the price of long term bonds thereby reducing the cost of borrowing in the economy
Forward guidance
statements about the future path of the policy rate
A communication tool
Works by anchoring market expectation about future interest rate decreases long term interest rate
The effectiveness of forward guidance depends on the credibility of the central bank
Negative interest rate policy
a situation whereby central banks private banks on their deposits (a negative interest rate)
Work by: encouraging banks to lend more (expansionary)
But could be costly for banks by reducing their profitability, which may make them less likely to lend (contradictory)
Banking panics
occur when consumers believe one or more banks might be bankrupt
Depositors rush to withdraw funds
Everyone tries to withdraw before the bank runs out of money
Banks have inadequate reserves to meet demand
Banks close and depositors lose their money
The Fed prevents bank panics by
Supervising and regulating banks
Loaning bank funds if needed
Deposit insurance
congress created deposit insurance in 1934 in response to the Great Depression
Deposits of less than $250,000 will be repaid even if the bank is bankrupt
Decreases incentive to withdraw funds on rumors
The downside is with less risk, depositors pay less attention to whether banks are making prudent investments
Quantity theory of money
a simple theory linking the inflation rate to the growth rate of the money supply
M x V = P x Y
M= money supply
P = Price level (CPI)
Y= Quantity of Output (Real GDP)
P x Y= value of output (nominal GDP)
V= velocity of money
predicts a one-for-one relationship between changes in the money growth rate and changes in the inflation rate
If the central bank keeps the money supply stable, the price level will be stable
If the central bak increases the money supply rapidly, the price level will rise rapidly
Velocity of money
the rate at which money circulates
The number of times the average dollar bill changes hands in a given time period
Velocity = (Price level x quantity of output) / (money supply)