Observations, Questionnaires, Interviews, and Sampling

What is participant observation?

• when the researcher takes part in the activity being observed

Advantage of participant observation?

• researcher gains a deeper understanding of group behaviour

Disadvantage of participant observation?

• researcher may lose objectivity by becoming part of the group

What is non participant observation?

• the researcher observes without getting involved in the activity

Advantage of non-participant observation?

• researcher can remain objective throughout

Disadvantage of non-participant observation?

• researcher may miss the dynamics by staying separate

What is structured observation?

• when behavioural categories are decided in advance

Advantage of structured observation?

• easier to find relevant data due to predefined focus

Disadvantage of structured observation?

• interesting behaviours might go unrecorded

What is overt observation?

• participants know they're being observed

Advantage of overt observation?

• more ethically sound as participants are aware

Disadvantage of overt observation?

• people may change behaviour due to awareness

What is covert observation?

• participants are unaware they are being observed

Advantage of covert observation?

• participants behave more naturally

Disadvantage of covert observation?

• gaining ethical approval can be difficult

What are controlled observations?

• observations in a lab setting where the researcher controls variables

Advantage of controlled observation?

• easy to replicate and identify cause and effect

Disadvantage of controlled observation?

• low ecological validity - participants may act unnaturally

What is an operationalised definition?

• a clear, specific description of behaviours to be observed

Why operationalise behaviour?

• to categorise and consistently observe defined behaviours

How is behaviour rated in observational research?

• using rating scales or coding systems (e.g.1 -10 for aggression)

What is event sampling?

• recording only particular events of interest

Advantage of event sampling?

• researcher records only relevant behaviours

Disadvantage of event sampling?

• may miss unrecorded behaviours

What is time interval sampling?

• observing for brief periods at set intervals

Advantage of time sampling?

• convenient for researchers

Disadvantage of time sampling?

• can miss behaviours that occur between intervals

What is inter observer reliability?

• when different observers produce similar records (consistency)

What are open questions?

• questions allowing for detailed, qualitative answers

What are closed questions?

• questions with limited response options, often quantitative

Problem with ambiguity in questionnaires?

• participants may interpret questions differently

What are double barrelled questions?

• questions that ask about two things at once

What are leading questions?

• questions that guide the participant to a particular answer

What’s the issue with complexity in questions?

• participants may misunderstand them

What affects interviews?

• how structured it is

• use of question checklists

• interviewer's behaviour/appearance

Why is sampling important?

• the sample must reflect the target population to generalise results

What is random sampling?

• everyone has an equal chance of being selected

Advantage of random sampling?

• minimises bias; fair chance for all

Disadvantage of random sampling?

• may not be representative; difficult with large populations

What is opportunity sampling?

• sampling those who are readily available

Advantage of opportunity sampling?

• quick and easy

Disadvantage of opportunity sampling?

• may not be representative

What is volunteer sampling?

• participants choose to take part, often through adverts

Advantage of volunteer sampling?

• more depth in analysis; convenient

Disadvantage of volunteer sampling?

• volunteers may not be representative (e.g. more motivated)

What is systematic sampling?

• selecting every nth person from a list

Advantage of systematic sampling?

• simple and effective

Disadvantage of systematic sampling?

• may be biased if list has a pattern

What is stratified sampling?

• dividing the population into subgroups and sampling proportionally

Advantage of stratified sampling?

• very representative

Disadvantage of stratified sampling?

• time consuming; complex to organise

What is the Hawthorne effect?

• participants change behaviour because they know they're being watched

What are demand characteristics?

• participants behave based on what they think the researcher wants

What is social desirability bias?

• participants give answers they think are acceptable or look good

What is researcher (experimenter) bias?

• when expectations affect how the study is designed or results interpreted

What are investigator effects?

• any researcher influence on participant behaviour or data collection