Comprehensive Guide to HSC Science Extension Modules 1-4

What is the core focus of Module 1 in HSC Science Extension?

The foundations and development of scientific thinking.

What does epistemology study?

The origin, nature, methods, and limits of knowledge.

What is empiricism?

The theory that knowledge is grounded in sensory experience and observation.

What is rationalism?

The emphasis on reason, logic, and mathematical proof in acquiring knowledge.

Define induction in the context of scientific reasoning.

Moving from specific observations to a general rule or theory.

Define deduction in scientific reasoning.

Moving from a general rule or theory to specific predictions.

What is parsimony in scientific explanations?

The preference for the simplest explanation that adequately accounts for the available evidence.

What does Occam's razor state?

When multiple explanations are equally supported, the one with the fewest unnecessary assumptions is preferred.

What is falsifiability?

The requirement that a scientific claim must be testable in a way that could show it to be wrong.

What is a hypothesis?

A testable, predictive, and explanatory statement relating an independent variable to a dependent variable.

What is a null hypothesis?

The assumption that the independent variable has no effect on the dependent variable.

What is an alternative hypothesis?

A hypothesis that states there is an effect or relationship, which can be one-tailed or two-tailed.

Differentiate between a scientific law and a theory.

A law describes what happens; a theory explains why it happens.

What is confirmation bias?

The tendency to seek, interpret, remember, or present evidence in ways that support existing beliefs or hypotheses.

What does theory-dependence of observation mean?

It means that what scientists notice and interpret is influenced by existing theories and expectations.

What are some controls to reduce bias in research?

Peer review, collaboration, preregistration, blinding, double-blinding, placebo controls, and transparent reporting.

What does CABDRIVERS stand for in evaluating research?

Control, Analysis, Bias, Data analysis, Replication.

What is the significance of the Scientific Revolution?

It marked a shift towards systematic observation, mathematics, and testable explanations in science.

What is the role of ethics in scientific research?

Ethics shape how research is conducted and ensure the integrity of scientific inquiry.

What is the importance of peer review in science?

It helps to validate research findings and reduce bias before publication.

What is the purpose of a scientific research report?

To communicate findings using scientific language and supported by peer-reviewed evidence.

What is the relationship between empirical data and theory in science?

Empirical data can challenge theories, while theories guide observations and interpretations.

How does large collaborative datasets influence modern science?

They enhance the scope and reliability of scientific research through shared information and resources.

What is the significance of the Enlightenment in scientific history?

It emphasized reason, evidence, and public knowledge, leading to scientific debate and publication.

What is a scientific claim?

A statement that can be tested and potentially falsified through observation and experimentation.

What is the role of statistical tests in research?

To analyze data and determine the validity of hypotheses based on evidence.

What is the significance of the Copernican revolution in science?

It provided a simpler explanatory framework for celestial movements compared to complex geocentric models.

What are the key components of a strong scientific investigation?

A strong scientific investigation includes a clear question, hypothesis, method, sampling, measurement, and data-management plan.

What does reliability in research refer to?

Reliability refers to the consistency of results when repeated under the same conditions.

How can validity be improved in a research study?

Validity can be improved by controlling relevant variables, using appropriate instruments, and aligning methods with the hypothesis.

What is the purpose of a literature review in research?

The literature review identifies existing knowledge, debates, methods used, gaps in research, and available public data.

What does SMART stand for in the context of research questions?

SMART stands for Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound.

What is the significance of randomization in research?

Randomization ensures that each participant or sample has an equal chance of allocation, reducing bias.

What ethical considerations must be addressed in human research?

Human research must address informed consent, minimization of risk, privacy protection, and ethics approval.

What are the 3 Rs in animal research ethics?

The 3 Rs are Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement.

What is the difference between systematic and random errors?

Systematic errors are consistent and shift results in one direction, while random errors are unpredictable fluctuations that increase scatter.

What is absolute uncertainty?

Absolute uncertainty is expressed in the same units as the measurement and represents the best estimate of how far a measurement may be from the true value.

How is relative uncertainty calculated?

Relative uncertainty is calculated as (absolute uncertainty ÷ measured value) × 100%.

What is the role of sample size in research reliability?

A larger sample size increases reliability by reducing random error and improving the accuracy of results.

What is the significance of the hypothesis in research?

The hypothesis predicts a relationship between variables and guides the research design and methodology.

What does data management involve in a research project?

Data management involves recording, cleaning, storing, backing up, and documenting data.

What is the purpose of a research timeline?

A research timeline outlines milestones, benchmarks, and contingency points required for the project.

What is the importance of communication in research findings?

Effective communication represents and justifies findings in the final report, ensuring clarity and understanding.

What is the significance of paradigm shifts in science?

Paradigm shifts occur when new evidence challenges existing assumptions, leading to changes in understanding and practice.

How did John Snow contribute to the understanding of cholera?

John Snow demonstrated that cholera was waterborne through contaminated pump water, challenging the miasma theory.

What was the old explanation for stomach ulcers before Marshall and Warren's discovery?

The old explanation was that stomach ulcers were mainly caused by stress.

What was Rosalind Franklin's contribution to DNA research?

Rosalind Franklin provided X-ray diffraction evidence that supported the double helix structure of DNA.

What does the term 'ethical frameworks' refer to in research?

Ethical frameworks guide the conduct of research involving human experimentation, animal research, and data sharing.

What is the significance of economic influences in scientific research?

Economic influences affect funding priorities, industry sponsorship, and competitiveness in research.

What is the role of global influences in current scientific research?

Global influences include pandemics, climate change, international collaborations, and shared scientific infrastructure.

What is the purpose of standardization in research?

Standardization ensures that conditions are kept consistent across groups or trials, enhancing reliability.

What is the importance of ethical approval in research?

Ethical approval ensures that research adheres to ethical standards, protecting participants and maintaining integrity.

How do you add uncertainties when multiplying or dividing?

Add the relative uncertainties.

What happens to absolute uncertainty when multiplying by a constant?

Absolute uncertainty is multiplied by the constant; relative uncertainty remains the same.

How do you calculate uncertainty when raising a value to a power?

Multiply the relative uncertainty by the power.

What do error bars represent in graphing?

Error bars visually show plausible variation around each data point.

What is the method for calculating slope uncertainty?

Slope uncertainty = (maximum slope − minimum slope) ÷ 2.

What is the difference between interpolation and extrapolation?

Interpolation estimates values within the measured range; extrapolation predicts beyond it and is much less certain.

What type of data does qualitative analysis involve?

Non-numerical descriptions or categories.

What analysis methods are used for qualitative data?

Thematic analysis, content analysis, coding, frequency counts.

What is a binary variable?

A variable with only two categories, such as yes/no or true/false.

What characterizes nominal data?

Categories without order, such as color or species.

What is ordinal data?

Ordered categories without equal intervals, such as low/medium/high.

What defines interval/continuous data?

Numerical values on a measured scale, like time or temperature.

What is discrete data?

Countable whole numbers, such as the number of colonies.

What should you consider when converting qualitative to quantitative data?

Evaluate whether a qualitative variable has a measurable feature.

What type of graph is best for two quantitative variables?

Scatter plot or line graph.

What type of graph should be used when the independent variable is qualitative?

Column graph or bar chart.

What is the best representation for qualitative variables with parts of a whole?

Pie chart.

What is remote sensing?

Studying an area or object without direct contact.

What are passive sensors?

Sensors that detect emitted or reflected energy, such as light or infrared radiation.

What is the Human Genome Project?

A project that mapped about 3 billion base pairs from anonymous volunteers.

What impact did the Human Genome Project have?

Accelerated biomedical research and supported personalized medicine.

What is the purpose of descriptive statistics?

To summarize features of a dataset and reveal patterns.

What does the mean represent in statistics?

The average for numerical data.

What is the limitation of using the mean?

It is strongly influenced by outliers and skew.

What does the median represent?

The middle value of a dataset.

What is the interquartile range?

Q3 minus Q1, useful with median and skewed data.

What is the interquartile range (IQR)?

Q3 minus Q1; useful with median and skewed data, ignores extremes.

What does SEM stand for and what does it indicate?

Standard Error of the Mean; shows uncertainty in the sample mean and precision of the estimate.

Define accuracy and precision in data measurement.

Accuracy refers to closeness to the true value; precision refers to closeness of repeated measurements to each other.

What is systematic error?

An error that produces precise but inaccurate results.

What is bias in statistical analysis?

A process that produces results systematically shifted away from the true value.

What is selection bias?

When the sample does not represent the target population; can be reduced by random sampling.

What is survivor bias?

Analyzing only successful or visible cases; consider missing or failed cases.

What is publication bias?

Positive results are more likely to be published than null results; register studies to value null findings.

What is the outlier rule in statistics?

Flag values below Q1 − 1.5 × IQR or above Q3 + 1.5 × IQR; do not remove outliers without justification.

What is a test statistic?

A value calculated from sample data indicating how closely the data match the null hypothesis.

What does a p-value represent?

The probability of obtaining a result at least as extreme as the observed result, assuming the null hypothesis is true.

What is the significance level commonly used in hypothesis testing?

A 5% significance level, where p < 0.05 is treated as statistically significant.

What are degrees of freedom?

The number of values free to vary in a calculation, commonly n − 1 for a single sample estimate.

What is the purpose of a one-sample t-test?

To compare one sample mean to a known or hypothetical population mean.

When is an independent/unpaired t-test used?

To compare two independent groups with equal variances.

What is the Welch's t-test used for?

To compare two independent groups with unequal variances.

What does a paired t-test compare?

The same subjects measured twice or matched pairs.

What is the purpose of an F-test?

To compare whether two independent samples from normally distributed populations have different variances.

What is a chi-square goodness-of-fit test?

It compares observed frequencies of a categorical variable to theoretical expected frequencies.

What does Pearson's r measure?

The strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables.

What is the difference between correlation and causation?

Correlation means variables change together; causation means one variable produces a change in another.

What are the Bradford Hill causality criteria?

Criteria include strength, temporality, consistency, plausibility, dose-response, experimental evidence, coherence, and analogy.