Psychology 2e: CHAPTER 2: Psychological Research

Observable realities that can be verified through empirical evidence.

Facts

Personal judgements, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate.

Opinions

The first woman to earn a PhD in psychology and who focused her research on animal behavior and cognition.

Margaret Floy Washburn (1871-1939)

She was a first-generation American psychologist who opposed the behavior movement, conducted research on memory, and established one of the earliest experimental psychology labs in the US and was the first woman president of the American Psychological Association by 1946.

Mary Whiton Calkins (1895-1934)

The first African American to earn a PhD in psychology in 1920. He is known for his work focused on issued related to psychoanalysis. One of the founders of Howard University’s psychology department sometimes referred to as “Father of Black Psychology.”

Francis Sumner (1895-1954)

First African America woman to receive a PhD in psychology. She focused on educational psychology and the effects of racial segregation on children. Influential in the Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court case, advocating for the importance of equal educational opportunities.

Inez Beverly Prosser (1895 -1934)

APA

The American Psychological Association; founded in 1892.

Generalization of real world ideas that are tested through hypotheses and observations, leading to conclusions based on general principles.

Deductive reasoning

real-world ideas that lead to new observations and generalizations based on specific instances or evidence.

Scientists use this to formulate theories which in turn generate hypothesis are tested with the opposing reasoning

Inductive reasoning

Real-world observations associated with inductive processes

Empirical Observations

well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation of observed phenomena.

Theory

Testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct; often worded in “if-then” statements

Hypothesis

James-Lang Theory

Theory of Emotion

Capable of being shown to be incorrect

Falsifiable

Types of Research

Observation research, Survey research, Archival research, Correlational research, Experimental Research

Generalizing

the ability to apply the findings of a particular research project to larger segments of society

Naturalistic Observation

observing behavior in its natural setting

Jane Goodall

An anthropologist who uses naturalistic observation to study the behavior of chimpanzees in Africa.

Strange Situation

procedure by Mary Ainsworth used to evaluate attachment styles that exist between infant and caregiver

People closely involved who may unconsciously skew their observation to fit their research goals or expectations

Observer Bias

a measure of reliability that assesses the consistency of observations by different observers

Inter-rater reliability

List of questions to be answered by research participants, and can be delivered as paper-and-pencil questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally

Survey

A subset of individuals selected from a population

Sample

Overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in

Population

Mode, Median, and Mean

The three measure of central tendency; mode is the most frequently occurring response, median is the middle of a given data set, and the mean is the average of all data points - most useful in conducting analytical data

The use of existing records to answer various research questions; relies on data set to show patterns or relationships

Archival Research

A research design in which data-gathering is required over an extended period of time

Longitudinal Research

Research is compared across multiple segments of a particular group at the same time; can be limited by differences of individuals by generation, social, or cultural experiences

Cross-Sectional research

reduction in number, size, or strength

Attrition

Research that involves a relationship between two or more variables, but does does imply cause and effect

Correlation Research

A number from -1 to +1 that indicated the strength and direction of the relationship between variables; usually represented by the letter r

Correlation Coefficient

A variable that influences both the independent and dependent variable; temperature being that variable between the ice cream and crime example

Confounding variable

False correlations

Illusory Correlation

Ignoring evidence or information that would falsify our beliefs or “hunches”

Confirmation bias

A precise description of variable

Operational Definition

The possibility that the researcher’s expectation could might skew the results of an experiment

experimenter bias

One of the participants or groups are uninformed of the experimental/control group while the experimenter is in full knowledge of which group the participant or group belongs to

single-blind study

Both the researcher and the participants are uninformed of the group (control or experimental) assignments

double-blind study

This manipulated or controlled by the experimenter

independent variable

the researcher measure this to see how much effect the other variable has/had.

dependent variable

The subjects of the research who actively participate in the study

Participants

The subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

Random Sample

All participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group

Random assignment

the ability to consistently produce a given result

Reliability

Types of reliability

inter-rater reliability ( the degree to which two or more different observers agree on the observation)

internal consistency (when different items on a survey that measure the same thing correlate with each other)

test-retest reliability ( the degree to which the outcomes of a particular measure remain consistent over multiple attempts)

the extent to which a given instrument or tool accurately measures what it’s supposed to measure

Validity

T