Unit 10: Neurological Disorders - Neuropsychology Overview

These flashcards cover key concepts related to various neurological disorders, their definitions, and characteristics as discussed in the lecture.

Cerebral Vascular Disorders

A broad category of conditions affecting the blood vessels in the brain, which are the most common cause of death and chronic disease in the Western world due to their impact on brain function and vitality.

Cerebral Vascular Accident (CVA)

Also known as a Stroke, it is a medical emergency caused by a sudden disruption of blood flow to a part of the brain, leading to cell death and potential neurological impairment.

Ischemia

A condition characterized by an inadequate blood supply to an organ or part of the body, especially the brain, caused by a blockage or constriction in blood vessels, leading to reduced oxygen and nutrient delivery.

Migraine Stroke

A rare type of ischemic stroke, also known as migrainous infarction, that occurs during or immediately after a migraine attack with aura, more commonly observed in younger individuals.

Cerebral Hemorrhage

A severe type of stroke caused by massive bleeding into the brain tissue itself, often a consequence of uncontrolled high blood pressure (hypertension) or ruptured blood vessels, leading to increased intracranial pressure and brain damage.

Angiomas

congenital - collection or tangle of abnormal, dilated blood vessels such as arteries and veins (e.g., arteriovenous malformations or AVMs), - divert normal blood flow and increase the risk of hemorrhage.

Aneurysms

A localized, abnormal, weak spot on a blood vessel wall, forming a balloon-like bulge or sac, often caused by congenital defects or chronic high blood pressure (hypertension), with a significant risk of rupture and bleeding.

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

An injury to the brain caused by an external physical force, resulting in temporary or permanent impairment of brain function; it is the most common form of injury in people under the age of 40 and can range from mild to severe.

Glasgow Coma Scale

A universally recognized neurological scale used to objectively assess the level of consciousness in a person following a head injury or other acute brain damage, evaluating eye-opening, verbal response, and motor response.

Epilepsy

A chronic neurological disorder characterized by recurrent, unprovoked seizures, which are sudden, uncontrolled electrical disturbances in the brain that can affect behavior, movement, sensations, and consciousness.

Neurodegenerative Disorders

A group of progressive and often debilitating conditions characterized by the gradual and irreversible loss of structure or function of neurons in the brain or spinal cord, leading to various neurological impairments.

Multiple Sclerosis

A chronic, autoimmune neurodegenerative disorder where the immune system attacks the protective myelin sheath covering nerve fibers in the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), leading to disrupted communication between the brain and the rest of the body, causing a wide range of neurological symptoms.

Alzheimer’s Disease

The most common progressive neurodegenerative disease and prevalent form of dementia, characterized by gradual cognitive decline, memory loss, and behavioral changes, pathologically identified by the presence of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

A common neurodevelopmental disorder typically diagnosed in childhood, characterized by persistent patterns of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that interfere with daily functioning and development across multiple settings.

Dyslexia

A specific learning disorder characterized by difficulty with accurate and/or fluent word recognition, poor decoding, and poor spelling abilities, despite normal intelligence and adequate educational opportunities.

Neurodevelopmental Disorders

A group of conditions with onset in the developmental period, characterized by developmental deficits that produce impairments in personal, social, academic, or occupational functioning, stemming from atypical brain development.

Mental Functioning

The overall capacity of the mind to perform cognitive processes, encompassing a range of intellectual abilities such as memory recall, sustained attention, problem-solving, planning, and executive functions, crucial for daily living and learning.

Bipolar Disorder

A mental health condition characterized by significant and often dramatic shifts in mood, energy, activity levels, and concentration, involving distinct periods of elevated or irritable mood (mania or hypomania) and depressive episodes.

Tourette Syndrome

A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by the presence of both multiple motor tics (sudden, repetitive, nonrhythmic movements) and one or more vocal tics (sounds), which are involuntary and often fluctuate in type and severity.

Hypertension

A chronic medical condition characterized by persistently elevated blood pressure in the arteries, which is a major risk factor for heart disease, stroke (including Cerebral Hemorrhage), and the formation of Aneurysms due to increased stress on blood vessel walls.

Seizures

Sudden, uncontrolled electrical disturbances in the brain’s neural networks that can cause changes in awareness, movements, sensations, or behavior, often a characteristic symptom of Epilepsy but can also occur due to other causes.

Myelin

A protective fatty substance that forms an insulating sheath around nerve fibers (axons) in the brain and spinal cord, enabling rapid and efficient transmission of electrical signals; its degeneration or loss is a hallmark pathological feature of Multiple Sclerosis.

Neurofibrillary Tangles

Abnormal intracellular accumulations of hyperphosphorylated tau protein that aggregate into insoluble twisted fibers within neurons, representing a hallmark pathological feature observed in the brains of individuals with Alzheimer’s Disease and other tauopathies.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The part of the nervous system composed of the brain and spinal cord, responsible for integrating sensory information and coordinating motor commands; it is the primary site where the demyelination and neurodegeneration characteristic of Multiple Sclerosis occur.

Cognitive Decline

A measurable reduction in one or more cognitive abilities—such as memory, attention, language, executive functions (e.g., planning, problem-solving), or visuospatial skills—that represents a decrease from a previous level of functioning, prominently observed in conditions like Alzheimer’s Disease and other dementias.

Stroke

A sudden interruption of the blood supply to part of the brain, leading to oxygen deprivation and brain cell death, also medically referred to as a Cerebral Vascular Accident (CVA), resulting in neurological deficits.

Dementia

A general umbrella term for a progressive and severe decline in mental ability that leads to significant impairment in daily activities and independence, affecting memory, thinking, language, problem-solving, and personality, with Alzheimer’s Disease being its most common cause.

Specific Learning Disorder

A neurodevelopmental disorder diagnosed when an individual's academic achievement in specific areas (e.g., reading, writing, mathematics) is substantially below what is expected for their age, intelligence, and education, despite adequate opportunity, with examples including Dyslexia.

Inattention

A core symptom of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) characterized by significant difficulty sustaining focus on tasks or activities, being easily distracted by irrelevant stimuli, poor organization, and forgetfulness in daily routines.

Hyperactivity

A core symptom of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) involving excessive and often disruptive motor activity, such as fidgeting, squirming, difficulty remaining seated, or appearing constantly ‘on the go,’ even in situations where quiet behavior is expected.

Impulsivity

A core symptom of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) characterized by hasty actions performed without forethought, difficulty waiting one's turn, interrupting others, and an inability to delay gratification, often leading to negative consequences.

Memory (Cognitive Ability)

A fundamental cognitive ability that involves the processes of encoding (how information is initially learned and registered), storing (retaining information over time), and retrieving (accessing stored information) previously acquired information, essential for learning and a key component of mental functioning.

Attention (Cognitive Ability)

A crucial cognitive ability involving the selective concentration on a discrete aspect of information while ignoring other perceivable information, and the capacity for sustained concentration on a specific task or stimulus, vital for effective mental functioning and learning.

Executive Functions

A complex set of higher-order cognitive abilities that control and regulate other cognitive processes and behaviors, encompassing planning, organizing, task initiation, working memory, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, problem-solving, and decision-making, all critical for goal-directed behavior and adaptation.

Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA)

Often referred to as a 'mini-stroke,' a transient ischemic attack is a brief episode of neurological dysfunction resulting from a temporary, localized interruption of blood flow to the brain, spinal cord, or retina, without acute infarction, but often serving as a critical warning sign for a potential future, more severe stroke.

Thrombotic Stroke

A common type of ischemic stroke that occurs when a blood clot (thrombus) forms directly in one of the arteries that supply blood to the brain. This typically happens in arteries already narrowed by atherosclerosis (plaque buildup), blocking blood flow and depriving brain tissue of oxygen.

Embolic Stroke

A type of ischemic stroke caused by an embolus—a blood clot or other foreign material (e.g., plaque, fat globule)—that forms in one part of the body (most commonly the heart, e.g., due to atrial fibrillation) and travels through the bloodstream to the brain, where it lodges in and blocks an artery, disrupting blood flow.

Focal (Partial) Seizure

A type of epileptic seizure that originates in and affects a specific, limited area or network within only one hemisphere of the brain, rather than both, and can manifest with or without loss of awareness.

Generalized Seizure

A type of epileptic seizure that involves both hemispheres of the brain symmetrically from the very beginning of the seizure, typically resulting in immediate loss of consciousness and widespread motor activity or profound changes in awareness.

Tonic-Clonic Seizure

Previously known as a 'grand mal' seizure, this is a type of generalized epileptic seizure characterized by an abrupt loss of consciousness, followed by a 'tonic' phase where the body stiffens and muscles contract, and then a 'clonic' phase of rhythmic jerking movements of the limbs and body.

Absence (Petit Mal) Seizure

Previously known as 'petit mal' seizure, an absence seizure is a type of generalized epileptic seizure characterized by very brief (usually 5-15 seconds), sudden lapses of consciousness, often appearing as a blank stare or daydreaming, without convulsions, and is more common in children.

Open Head Injury

A type of traumatic brain injury (TBI) where the skull is fractured and the protective dura mater is penetrated, leading to direct exposure of the brain tissue to the outside environment, which carries a high risk of infection and direct tissue damage.

Closed Head Injury

A type of traumatic brain injury (TBI) where the scalp and skull remain unbroken, but the brain is damaged due to rapid acceleration-deceleration forces, causing it to strike the inside of the skull, leading to bruising (contusion), swelling (edema), bleeding, or shearing of brain tissue without direct external exposure.

Arteriovenous Malformation (AVM)

A congenital (present at birth) and often progressively enlarging abnormal tangle of blood vessels where arteries shunt blood directly into veins, bypassing the normal capillary bed. This creates a high-pressure system that can weaken vessel walls, leading to increased risk of rupture and massive hemorrhage within the brain.

Coup Injury

In the context of head trauma, a coup injury refers to the brain damage that occurs precisely at the point of initial impact or blow to the head, where the brain tissue directly sustains the force.

Contrecoup Injury

In head trauma, a contrecoup injury refers to brain damage that occurs on the side of the brain opposite to the initial site of impact. This happens when the brain, due to inertia, first impacts the skull at the point of trauma (coup), then rebounds and strikes the opposite side of the skull, causing secondary injury.

Diffuse Axonal Injury (DAI)

A severe and common type of traumatic brain injury (TBI) resulting from the widespread shearing, tearing, or stretching of nerve fibers (axons) throughout the brain, caused by strong rotational or acceleration-deceleration forces. This disruption disconnects communication pathways, often leading to immediate loss of consciousness, prolonged coma, and severe, persistent cognitive impairments.

Post-Traumatic Amnesia (PTA)

A period of confusion, disorientation, and anterograde amnesia (inability to form new memories) that occurs immediately following a traumatic brain injury (TBI), signifying the duration of brain dysfunction and often used as an indicator of TBI severity and recovery prognosis.

Retrograde Amnesia

A form of amnesia characterized by the inability to recall memories, facts, or events that occurred for a period of time before the onset of a brain injury or disease that caused the amnesia.

Anterograde Amnesia

A form of amnesia characterized by the inability to form new long-term memories for events or information acquired after the onset of a brain injury or disease, while memories from before the event may remain largely intact.

Concussion

A mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) caused by a sudden blow or jolt to the head that causes the brain to move rapidly inside the skull, resulting in a temporary disturbance of brain function (e.g., changes in mental status, consciousness, or neurological symptoms) without gross structural damage detectable on standard imaging.

Status Epilepticus

A life-threatening neurological emergency defined as continuous seizure activity lasting longer than 5 minutes, or recurrent seizures without a return to baseline consciousness between episodes, requiring urgent medical intervention to prevent permanent brain damage or death.

Myoclonic Seizure

A type of generalized epileptic seizure characterized by sudden, brief, involuntary single or multiple shock-like muscle jerks or twitches, typically affecting both sides of the body, with consciousness usually remaining intact during the brief event.

Atonic Seizure

A type of generalized epileptic seizure, also known as a 'drop attack,' characterized by a sudden and brief loss of muscle tone throughout the body, causing the individual to abruptly fall or drop their head, typically without loss of consciousness before or after the fall.

Focal Aware Seizure

A type of focal epileptic seizure where the individual remains fully conscious and aware of the seizure event as it occurs, experiencing symptoms specific to the brain region where the seizure originates (e.g., motor, sensory, or autonomic symptoms) but without loss of awareness or memory.

Focal Impaired-Awareness Seizure

A type of focal epileptic seizure where the individual's consciousness or awareness is impaired during the event, meaning they may be confused, dazed, or unresponsive. These seizures often involve automatisms (involuntary, repetitive behaviors like lip-smacking, fiddling, or walking aimlessly) and the person typically has no memory of the event afterward.

Focal to Bilateral Tonic-Clonic Seizure

A type of epileptic seizure that starts as a focal seizure in one part of the brain (with either preserved or impaired awareness) and then rapidly spreads to involve both hemispheres, culminating in a generalized tonic-clonic seizure with characteristic loss of consciousness, body stiffening, and rhythmic jerking movements.

Parkinson’s Disease

A progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized primarily by motor symptoms such as resting tremor, rigidity (stiffness), bradykinesia (slowness of movement), and postural instability, resulting from the degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons in a specific brain region called the substantia nigra.

Huntington’s Disease

A rare, inherited neurodegenerative disorder that causes the progressive breakdown (degeneration) of nerve cells in the brain, leading to uncontrolled movements (chorea), psychiatric problems (e.g., mood swings, depression), and a progressive decline in cognitive abilities.

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)

Also known as Lou Gehrig’s disease, ALS is a rapidly progressive and ultimately fatal neurodegenerative disease that selectively affects motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord, leading to progressive muscle weakness, atrophy, spasticity, and eventual paralysis, while typically sparing cognitive function.

Multi-Infarct Dementia

A type of vascular dementia caused by accumulating damage from multiple small strokes (infarcts) or blockages in the small blood vessels of the brain. The symptoms often develop in a stepwise fashion, with sudden declines in cognitive function after each new stroke, leading to impairments in memory, executive function, and other cognitive domains.

Neglect Syndrome

A neurological disorder of attention, often observed after damage to the right parietal lobe of the brain (but can occur with left parietal damage), characterized by an inability or difficulty to attend to, perceive, or respond to stimuli presented on the contralateral side of space (typically the left side), even though there is no primary sensory or motor deficit.

Cerebral Edema

The pathological accumulation of excess fluid within the brain parenchyma (tissue), leading to swelling that increases intracranial pressure (ICP) and can severely compromise brain function, exacerbate primary brain injury, and cause secondary damage if not managed promptly.

Secondary Brain Injury

Brain damage that is not directly caused by the initial impact or insult (primary injury) but develops hours, days, or even weeks later as a consequence of the initial injury. This includes processes like inflammation, cerebral edema, ischemia (hypoxia), increased intracranial pressure, excitotoxicity, and hemorrhage, which can worsen neurological outcomes.

Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA)

Often referred to as a 'mini-stroke,' a transient ischemic attack is a brief episode of neurological dysfunction resulting from a temporary, localized interruption of blood flow to the brain, spinal cord, or retina, without acute infarction, but often serving as a critical warning sign for a potential future, more severe stroke.

Thrombotic Stroke

A common type of ischemic stroke that occurs when a blood clot (thrombus) forms directly in one of the arteries that supply blood to the brain. This typically happens in arteries already narrowed by atherosclerosis (plaque buildup), blocking blood flow and depriving brain tissue of oxygen.

Embolic Stroke

A type of ischemic stroke caused by an embolus
—a blood clot or other foreign material (e.g., plaque, fat globule)
—that forms in one part of the body (most commonly the heart, e.g., due to atrial fibrillation) and travels through the bloodstream to the brain, where it lodges in and blocks an artery, disrupting blood flow.

Migraine Stroke

A rare type of ischemic stroke, also known as migrainous infarction, that occurs during or immediately after a migraine attack with aura, more commonly